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Statistics > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Scientific Method

A
  1. Way to gain knowledge about behavior and mental processes
    - A general approach to gaining knowledge
    - Not a particular technique or tool
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2
Q

General Approach and Attitude (Nonscientific vs. Scientific)

A
  1. Nonscientific
    - Intuitive
    - Judgments based on “what feels right”
    - Accept claims without evidence
  2. Scientific
    - Empirical
    - Judgments based on direct observation and experimentation
    - Skeptical, critical attitude
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3
Q

Observation (Nonscientific vs. Scientific)

A
  1. Nonscientific
    - Casual, uncontrolled
    - Personal biases influence observation
  2. Scientific
    - Systematic, controlled
    - Control: essential ingredient of science
    - Greatest control is in an experiment
    - Investigate factors one at a time in experiment
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4
Q

Experiment

A

A specific type of research study

-An experiment has at least one independent variable and one dependent variable

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5
Q

Independent Variable (IV)

A
  1. Factor researchers controls or manipulates in order to determine the effect on behavior
  2. Minimum of two levels:
    - Treatment (experimental) condition
    - Control condition
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6
Q

Dependent Variable (DV)

A
  1. Measure of behavior used to assess the effect of the independent variable
  2. Most studies involve several dependent variables
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7
Q

Concept (Nonscientific vs. Scientific)

A
  1. Nonscientific
    - Ambiguous
    - We use words even when not clear in their meaning
  2. Scientific
    - Clear, specific definitions
    - Construct= concept
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8
Q

Reporting (Nonscientific vs. Scientific)

A
  1. Nonscientific
    - Biased, subjective
    - Personal impressions
  2. Scientific
    - Unbiased, objective
    - Separate observations from inferences
    - Interobserver agreement
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9
Q

Constructs

A
  1. Many psychological constructs
  2. Operational definition
    - Specific procedure used to produce and measure a construct
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10
Q

Advantages of operational definitions

A
  1. Define constructs with specificity

2. Allow clear communication

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11
Q

Disadvantages of operational definitions

A
  1. Potentially limitless number of operational definitions for any construct
  2. Some operational definitions may be meaningless
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12
Q

Instruments (Nonscientific vs. Scientific)

A
  1. Nonscientific
    - Inaccurate, imprecise
  2. Scientific
    - Accurate, Precise
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13
Q

Measurement (Nonscientific vs. Scientific)

A
  1. Nonscientific
    - Not valid nor reliable
    - Measures of concepts are inaccurate or inconsistent
  2. Scientific
    - Valid and reliable
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14
Q

Validity

A

Measures are truthful

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15
Q

Reliability

A

Consistency

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16
Q

Physical Measurement

A
  1. Dimensions have agreed-upon standards and instruments
17
Q

Psychological Measurement

A
  1. Constructs have no agreed-upon standard nor instrument

- Researchers develop measures to assess psychological constructs

18
Q

Hypotheses (Nonscientific vs. Scientific)

A
  1. Nonscientific- untestable
  2. Scientific- testable
    - Concepts are clearly defined and measured
19
Q

Hypothesis is not testable if:

A
  1. Constructs are not adequately defined
  2. Circular: the event itself is used as an explanation for the event
  3. Appeals to ideas or forces not recognized by science
20
Q

Four research goals of the scientific method

A
  1. Description
  2. Prediction
  3. Explanation
  4. Application
21
Q

Description

A
  1. Define, classify, catalogue, or categorize events and their relationships
  2. Most psychology research is nomothetic, not idiographic
  3. Most psychology research is quantitative, not qualitative
22
Q

Prediction

A
  1. Correlations (relationships) among variables allow researchers to predict mental processes and behavior
  2. Variable: dimension on which people differ, or vary
  3. Correlation: two measures of the same people, events, or things vary together or go together
  4. Correlation does not imply causation
23
Q

Explanation

A
  1. Researchers understand and can explain a phenomenon when they can identify
  2. Conduct controlled experiments to identify causes
  3. Control
    - Manipulate factors one at a time to determine their effect (independent variables)
    - Measure dependent variables
  4. Causal inference
    - Statement about the cause of an event or behavior
  5. Three conditions
    - Covariation of events
    - Time-order relationship
    - Elimination of plausible, alternative causes
  6. Causal inferences and confounding
    - Confounding: when two independent variables co-vary together
    - Cannot determine which IV caused effect on DV
    - For causal inference, experiment must be free of confoundings
24
Q

Generalization

A
  1. Researchers are not interested in just the one sample of people or one set of circumstances tested in a research study
  2. They wish to generalize a study’s findings to other:
    - People
    - Settings
    - Conditions
25
Q

Application

A
  1. Apply knowledge and research methods to improve people’s lives
  2. Basic and Applied Research
26
Q

Applied research

A

Research to improve people’s lives

-Often “real-world” or natural settings

27
Q

Basic research

A

Research to understand behavior and mental processes

  • Seeking knowledge for its own sake
  • Often in laboratory settings
  • Goal of testing theories
28
Q

Theories

A

Proposed explanations for the causes of phenomena

  • Explain who, what, where, how, and why of behavior and mental processes
  • Logically organized set of statements
  • Define events (concepts)
  • Describe relationships among events
  • Explain the occurrence of events
  • Theories vary in scope and complexity
29
Q

Successful theories

A
  • Organize empirical knowledge
  • Suggest testable hypotheses
  • Guide research
  • Survive rigorous testing
  • Are logical, internally consistent, precise, parsimonious
30
Q

Intervening Variables

A
  • Processes or mechanisms used to explain relationship between IVs and DVs
  • “Hidden” processes represented by constructs

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