Chapter 2 Flashcards
Scientific Method
- Way to gain knowledge about behavior and mental processes
- A general approach to gaining knowledge
- Not a particular technique or tool
General Approach and Attitude (Nonscientific vs. Scientific)
- Nonscientific
- Intuitive
- Judgments based on “what feels right”
- Accept claims without evidence - Scientific
- Empirical
- Judgments based on direct observation and experimentation
- Skeptical, critical attitude
Observation (Nonscientific vs. Scientific)
- Nonscientific
- Casual, uncontrolled
- Personal biases influence observation - Scientific
- Systematic, controlled
- Control: essential ingredient of science
- Greatest control is in an experiment
- Investigate factors one at a time in experiment
Experiment
A specific type of research study
-An experiment has at least one independent variable and one dependent variable
Independent Variable (IV)
- Factor researchers controls or manipulates in order to determine the effect on behavior
- Minimum of two levels:
- Treatment (experimental) condition
- Control condition
Dependent Variable (DV)
- Measure of behavior used to assess the effect of the independent variable
- Most studies involve several dependent variables
Concept (Nonscientific vs. Scientific)
- Nonscientific
- Ambiguous
- We use words even when not clear in their meaning - Scientific
- Clear, specific definitions
- Construct= concept
Reporting (Nonscientific vs. Scientific)
- Nonscientific
- Biased, subjective
- Personal impressions - Scientific
- Unbiased, objective
- Separate observations from inferences
- Interobserver agreement
Constructs
- Many psychological constructs
- Operational definition
- Specific procedure used to produce and measure a construct
Advantages of operational definitions
- Define constructs with specificity
2. Allow clear communication
Disadvantages of operational definitions
- Potentially limitless number of operational definitions for any construct
- Some operational definitions may be meaningless
Instruments (Nonscientific vs. Scientific)
- Nonscientific
- Inaccurate, imprecise - Scientific
- Accurate, Precise
Measurement (Nonscientific vs. Scientific)
- Nonscientific
- Not valid nor reliable
- Measures of concepts are inaccurate or inconsistent - Scientific
- Valid and reliable
Validity
Measures are truthful
Reliability
Consistency
Physical Measurement
- Dimensions have agreed-upon standards and instruments
Psychological Measurement
- Constructs have no agreed-upon standard nor instrument
- Researchers develop measures to assess psychological constructs
Hypotheses (Nonscientific vs. Scientific)
- Nonscientific- untestable
- Scientific- testable
- Concepts are clearly defined and measured
Hypothesis is not testable if:
- Constructs are not adequately defined
- Circular: the event itself is used as an explanation for the event
- Appeals to ideas or forces not recognized by science
Four research goals of the scientific method
- Description
- Prediction
- Explanation
- Application
Description
- Define, classify, catalogue, or categorize events and their relationships
- Most psychology research is nomothetic, not idiographic
- Most psychology research is quantitative, not qualitative
Prediction
- Correlations (relationships) among variables allow researchers to predict mental processes and behavior
- Variable: dimension on which people differ, or vary
- Correlation: two measures of the same people, events, or things vary together or go together
- Correlation does not imply causation
Explanation
- Researchers understand and can explain a phenomenon when they can identify
- Conduct controlled experiments to identify causes
- Control
- Manipulate factors one at a time to determine their effect (independent variables)
- Measure dependent variables - Causal inference
- Statement about the cause of an event or behavior - Three conditions
- Covariation of events
- Time-order relationship
- Elimination of plausible, alternative causes - Causal inferences and confounding
- Confounding: when two independent variables co-vary together
- Cannot determine which IV caused effect on DV
- For causal inference, experiment must be free of confoundings
Generalization
- Researchers are not interested in just the one sample of people or one set of circumstances tested in a research study
- They wish to generalize a study’s findings to other:
- People
- Settings
- Conditions
Application
- Apply knowledge and research methods to improve people’s lives
- Basic and Applied Research
Applied research
Research to improve people’s lives
-Often “real-world” or natural settings
Basic research
Research to understand behavior and mental processes
- Seeking knowledge for its own sake
- Often in laboratory settings
- Goal of testing theories
Theories
Proposed explanations for the causes of phenomena
- Explain who, what, where, how, and why of behavior and mental processes
- Logically organized set of statements
- Define events (concepts)
- Describe relationships among events
- Explain the occurrence of events
- Theories vary in scope and complexity
Successful theories
- Organize empirical knowledge
- Suggest testable hypotheses
- Guide research
- Survive rigorous testing
- Are logical, internally consistent, precise, parsimonious
Intervening Variables
- Processes or mechanisms used to explain relationship between IVs and DVs
- “Hidden” processes represented by constructs
