Chapter 5 Flashcards
Perception, action, and learning in infancy
Sensation
The processing of information from the external world via receptors in the sense organs and brain
Perception
The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
Preferential-looking technique
A method for studying visual attention in infants that involves showing infants two images simultaneously to see if the infants prefer one over the other (indexed by longer looking)
Visual activity
The sharpness and clarity of vision
Contrast sensitivity
The ability to detect differences in light and dark areas in a visual pattern
Cone cells
Light-sensitive neurons that are highly concentrated in the fovea (the central region of the retina)
Smooth pursuit eye movements
Visual behavior in which the viewer’s gaze shifts at the same rate and angle as a moving object
Gaze-following
Synchronizing visual attention with another person by tracking their gaze
Perceptual constancy
The perception of objects as being of constant size, shape, color, and so on, in spite of physical differences in retinal image of the object
Object segregation
The identification of separate objects in a visual array
Violation-of-expectancy
A procedure in which infants are shown an event that should evoke surprise or interest if it is inconsistent with their prior knowledge
Optical expansion
A depth cue in which an object occludes increasingly more of the background, indicating that the object is approaching
Binocular disparity
The difference between the retinal image of an object in each eye that results in two slightly different signals being sent to the brain
Stereopsis
The process by which the visual cortex combines the differing neural signals caused by binocular disparity, resulting in the perception of depth
Monocular depth (or pictorial) cues
The perceptual cues of depth (such as relative size and interposition) that can be perceived by one eye alone
Auditory localization
Perception of the location in space of a sound source
Head-turn preference procedure (HPP)
Experimental test of auditory perception in which different sounds are presented to infants from different locations, and the researcher uses the duration of infants’ looks toward each location to determine which sounds they prefer to listen to
Perceptual narrowing
Developmental changes in which experience fine-tunes the perceptual system to focus on the distinctions between stimuli that are most relevant in a person’s environment
Intermodal perception
The combining of information from two or more sensory systems
Reflexes
Fixed patterns of action that occur in response to particular stimulation
Stepping reflex
A neonatal reflex in which an infant lifts first one leg and then the other in a coordinated pattern like walking
Affordances
The possibilities for action offered, or afforded, by objects and situations
Pre-reaching movements
Clumsy swiping movements by young infants toward objects they see
Self-locomotion
The ability to move oneself around in the environment
Scale error
The attempt by a young child to perform an action on a miniature object that is impossible due to the large discrepancy in the relative sizes of the child and the object
Classical conditioning
A form of learning that consists of associating an initially neutral stimulus with a stimulus that always evokes a particular reflexive response
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that evokes a reflexive response
Unconditioned response (UCR)
A reflexive response that is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
The neutral stimulus that is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response (CR)
The originally reflexive response that comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus
Instrumental (or operant) conditioning
Learning the relation between one’s own behavior and the consequences that result from it
Positive reinforcement
A reward that reliably follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
Rational learning
The ability to use prior experiences to predict what will occur in the future
Active learning
Learning by engaging with the world, rather than passively observing objects and events
