Chapter 42- The Animal Body and Principles of Regulation Flashcards
Anatomy
Study of the biological form of an organism
Physiology
Study of the biological functions an organism performs
Order from simplest to complex
Cells < Tissues < Organs < Organ Systems
How many vertebrates do humans have?
210
Tissues
Group of cells that are similar in structure and function
3 embryonic tissues called germ layers
-Endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm
In adult
-Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve
Organs
Combinations of different tissues that form a structural and functional unit
Organ Systems
Groups of organs that cooperate to perform the major activities of the body
11 principal organ systems
The general body plan?
“Tube within a tube”
Inner Tube
Digestive Tract
Outer Tube
Main vertebrate body
-Supported by a skeleton
Outermost layer
Skin and its accessories
Characteristics of vertebrates
Bilateral symmetry Jointed endoskeleton Dorsal nervous system Modified gut Cephalized
What are the 2 main body cavities?
Dorsal and Ventral
Dorsal
Forms within skull and vertebrae
Ventral
Bounded by the rib cage and vertebral column
Divided by the diaphragm into thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity
Thoracic cavity
Heart and lungs
What cavity is around the heart?
Pericardial cavity
What cavity is around the lungs?
Pleural cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity
Most organs
Peritoneal cavity
Coelomic space
Epithelial Tissue
Covers every surface of the vertebrate body
Can come from any of the 3 germ layers
Tightly bound together - provide a protective barrier
Good regenerative powers
Basal Surface
Secured side
Apical Surface
Free side
What are the two general classes of epithelial tissue?
Simple and stratified
Simple
One layer thick
Stratified
Several layer thick
What are the subdivisions for the two classes?
Squamous, cuboidal, and columnar
Squamous
Flat
Cuboidal
About as wide as tall
Columnar
Taller than they are wide
Simple squamous epthelium
Lines lungs and blood capillaries
Delicate nature permits diffusion
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Lines kidney tubules and several glands
Simple columnar epithelium
Lines airways of respiratory tract and most of the gastrointestinal tract
Contains goblet cells - secrete mucus
Simple Epithelium
Glands of vertebrates form from invaginated epithelia
Exocrine glands
Conected to epithelium by a duct
Sweat, sebaceous, and salivary glands
Endocrine glands
Ductless - lost duct during development
Secretions (hormones) enter blood
Stratified Epithelium
Named according to the features of their apical cell layers
Epidermis
Connective Tissues
Derive from embryonic mesoderm
All have abundant extracellular material called the matrix
What are the two major classes of connective tissues?
Connective tissue proper and special connective tissue
Connective tissue proper
Loose or dense
Fibroblasts produce and secrete extracellular matrix
Loose connective tissue
Cells scattered within a matrix that contains a large amount of ground substance
What strengthens the loose connective tissue?
Collagen, elastin, and reticulin
Collagen
Supports tissue
Elastin
Makes tissue elastic
Reticulin
Helps support the network of collagen
Adipose cells
They are fat cells that develop in large groups in certain areas, forming adipose tissue
Dense connective tissue
Contains less ground substance than loose connective tissue
Can be categorized as regular or irregular
Dense regular connective tissue
Collagen fibers line up in parallel
Makes up tendons and ligaments
Dense irregular connective tissue
Collagen fibers have different orientations
Covers kidney, muscles, nerves, and bone
What are the three special connective tissue?
Blood, cartilage, and bone
Cartilage
Made from chondroitin (characteristic glycoprotein) and collagen fibers
Firm and flexible tissue that does not stretch
Found in joint surfaces and other locations
Bone
Osteocytes (bone cells remain alive in a matrix hardened with calcium phosphate
Communicate through canaliculi
Blood
Extracellular material is the fluid plasma
Erythrocytes
Red Blood cells
Leukocytes
White blood cells
Thrombocytes
Platelets
What are the three muscle tissues?
Smooth, skeletal, and cardiac
Skeletal
Straited Voluntary Usually attached to bone by tendons Muscle fibers (cells) are multinucleated Contract by means of myofibrils, which contain ordered actin and myosin filaments
Smooth
Unstraited
Unvoluntary
Found in walls of blood vessels and visceral organs
Contain a single nucleus
Cardiac
Straited
Unvoluntary
Composed of smaller, interconnected cells
Each with a single nucleus
Interconnections appear as dark lines called intercalated disks
Gap junctions link adjacent cells
-Enable cardiac muscle cells to form a single functioning unit
Nerve tissue
Cells include neurons and their supporting cells (neuroglia)
Consist of three parts
What are the three parts to the neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, and axon
Cell body
Contains the nucleus
Dendrites
Highly branched extensions
Conduct electrical impulses toward the cell body
Axon
Single cytoplasmic extension
Conducts impulses away from cell body
Neuroglia
Do not conduct electrical impulses
Support and insulate neurons and eliminate foreign materials in and around neurons
Associate with axon to form an insulating cover called the myelin sheath
Gaps
(Nodes of Ranvier) are involved in acceleration of impulses
How is the nervous system divided?
It is divided into the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
Central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord
Integration and interpretation of input
Peripheral nervous system
Nerves and ganglia (collection of cell bodies)
Communication of signal to and from the CNS to the rest of the body
What organ system(s) detect external stiumli and coordinate the body’s responses?
Nervous, sensory, and endocrine systems
What organ system(s) provide support and movement?
Muscular and skeletal
What organ system(s) regulate and maintain the body’s chemistry?
Digestive, circulatory, respiratory, and urinary systems.
What organ system(s) provides defense?
Integumentary and immune systems
Homeostasis
Dynamic constancy of the internal environment
Negative feedback mechanisms
Changing conditions are detected by sensors
Information is fed to an integrating center, also called comparator
Compares conditions to a set point
If conditions deviate too far from a set point, biochemical reactions are initiated to change conditions back toward the set point
What is part of the comparator?
Brain, spinal cord, or endocrine gland
What do humans have set points for?
Body temperature, blood glucose concentrations, electrolyte (ion) concentration, tendon tension, etc.
Effectors
(Muscles or glands) change the value of the condition in question back toward the set point value
What controls many internal factors?
Antagonistic effectors
Antagonistic effectors are involved in controlling what?
Body temperature
What happens if the hypothalamus detects high temperature?
Promotes heat dissipation via sweating and dilation of blood vessels in skin
What happens if the hypothalamus detects low temperature?
Promotes heat conservation via shivering and constriction of blood vessels in skin
Positive feedback mechanisms
Enhance a change - not common
These do not in themselves maintain homeostasis
What is a measure of temperature sensitivity?
Q10
What is the formula for Q10?
Q10=R(T+10)/RT
What determines temperature?
Body heat, metabolism, and the environment
What is the formula for body heat?
Body Heat = Heat produced + Heat transferred
Radiation
Transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation
Conduction
The direct transfer of heat between two objects. Energy is transferred from hotter objects to colder ones.
Convection
Transfer of heat brought about by the movement of a gas or liquid.
Evaporation
Heat of vaporization or the amount of energy needed to change them from a liquid to a gas phase.
What are the influencing factors for temperature?
Surface area
Temperature difference
Specific heat conduction
How do ectotherms regulate temperature?
Low metabolic rates
Regulate via behavior
How do endotherms regulate temperature?
They create metabolic heat Conservation or dissipation Heat transfer is controlled by amount of blood flow to the surface of the animal -Countercurrent exchange Allows sustained high-energy activity
What are some examples of stimulation of heat-losing center?
Peripheral blood vessel dilation
Sweating
What are some examples of stimulation of heat-promoting center?
Thermogenesis
Constriction of blood peripheral blood vessels
Epinephrine production by adrenal glands
Anterior pituitary produces TSH
