Chapter 4 Flashcards
Why is this course labelled ‘Applications’?
This course is called ‘Applications’ because it focuses on applying psychological theories and research findings to real-world contexts, particularly in development.
What are the four main stages of development?
- Prenatal
- Infancy and childhood
- Adolescence
- Adulthood
What are the three main stages of prenatal development?
- Zygote stage (0-2 weeks): Rapid cell division, implantation in the uterus.
- Embryonic stage (3-8 weeks): Formation of major organs, susceptibility to teratogens.
- Fetal stage (9 weeks-birth): Growth and refinement of organs, brain development.
What are monozygotic and dizygotic twins? How do they develop?
Monozygotic (identical) twins: Develop from one fertilized egg that splits into two embryos.
Dizygotic (fraternal) twins: Develop from two separate eggs fertilized by two sperm.
What do cephalocaudal and proximodistal mean?
Cephalocaudal: Development occurs from head to toe.
Proximodistal: Development occurs from the center of the body outward.
Why is it difficult to study the effects of teratogens on human embryos or fetuses?
Ethical concerns prevent controlled experiments; effects can vary based on dose, timing, and genetic susceptibility.
When are teratogens most dangerous, and why?
During the embryonic stage (3-8 weeks) because major organs and structures are forming.
What are the effects of teratogens at the three prenatal stages?
- Germinal: May prevent implantation.
- Embryonic: Structural defects, major malformations.
- Fetal: Functional impairments, cognitive issues.
Give three examples of teratogens.
- Alcohol (Fetal Alcohol Syndrome)
- Nicotine (low birth weight, respiratory issues)
- Thalidomide (limb deformities)
What does ‘constructivist’ mean in childhood development? Which theorist supported this view?
A constructivist believes children actively construct knowledge through experience. Jean Piaget adhered to this view.
Explain Piaget’s concept of the ‘dialectical’ with an example.
Learning occurs through opposing forces—assimilation and accommodation. Example: A child thinking all four-legged animals are dogs but later learning about cats.
What are assimilation and accommodation in development?
Assimilation: Incorporating new info into existing schemas.
Accommodation: Changing schemas to fit new information.
What are equilibration and disequilibrium in Piaget’s theory?
Equilibration: Balance between assimilation and accommodation.
Disequilibrium: When new experiences challenge existing schemas, leading to learning.
What are Piaget’s four stages of development?
- Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Object permanence.
- Preoperational (2-7 years): Symbolic thinking, egocentrism, animism.
- Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical thinking, conservation.
- Formal Operational (12+ years): Abstract reasoning.
What are the six substages of the sensorimotor stage?
Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (0-2 years) is divided into six substages:
1. Reflexes (0-1 month)
• Infants rely on innate reflexes (e.g., sucking, grasping).
• Behavior is automatic and not yet intentional.
2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)
• Infants accidentally discover pleasurable actions (e.g., sucking thumb).
• Actions are repeated because they bring satisfaction.
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)
• Infants begin to focus on external objects (not just their own body).
• Example: Repeatedly shaking a rattle to hear the sound.
4. Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months)
• Intentional behavior begins (goal-directed actions).
• Early signs of object permanence appear.
• Example: Pushing one toy aside to grab another.
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)
• Infants become “little scientists”, experimenting with different actions.
• Example: Dropping objects from different heights to see how they fall.
6. Mental Representation (18-24 months)
• Internal thinking emerges (instead of just trial-and-error).
• Deferred imitation: Can copy actions they saw earlier.
• Example: Pretending to talk on a phone like a parent.
What are animism and egocentrism? In which Piaget stage do they appear?
Animism: Belief that inanimate objects have feelings.
Egocentrism: Inability to see from another’s perspective.
Both appear in the preoperational stage.
What are conservation tasks, and how do they relate to Piaget’s stages?
Conservation tasks test a child’s understanding that quantity remains the same despite shape changes. Mastered in the concrete operational stage.
What is the key difference between Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories?
Piaget: Development occurs in universal stages.
Vygotsky: Development is influenced by social and cultural interactions.
What are scaffolding and the zone of proximal development?
Scaffolding: Support given to a child to help them learn.
Zone of Proximal Development: The gap between what a child can do alone vs. with help.
What is attachment in developmental psychology?
A strong emotional bond between a child and caregiver, essential for development.
What is imprinting?
A rapid attachment process in animals, occurring during a critical period (e.g., ducks following their mother).
Describe Harlow’s monkey experiment and its conclusions.
Monkeys preferred a soft cloth surrogate over a wire one with food, proving that comfort is crucial for attachment.
What is Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Paradigm? What is a paradigm?
A method to assess infant attachment styles. A paradigm is a model or framework.
What are the three main infant attachment styles?
- Secure: Comforted by caregiver.
- Avoidant: Indifferent to caregiver.
- Anxious/Ambivalent: Clingy, difficult to console.
What are Kohlberg’s three stages of moral development?
- Preconventional: Obedience and self-interest.
- Conventional: Social rules and laws.
- Postconventional: Abstract ethical principles.
What is the Heinz dilemma?
A moral dilemma used to study reasoning (should Heinz steal a drug to save his wife?).
How does the prefrontal cortex develop, and why is it important?
Develops into the mid-20s; responsible for decision-making, impulse control, and reasoning.
What is adolescent egocentrism?
A belief that one’s experiences are unique and that others are constantly watching them.
What are the types of dementia? Which is most common?
- Alzheimer’s (most common)
- Vascular dementia
- Lewy body dementia
Symptoms: Memory loss, confusion, impaired reasoning.
What is the social clock?
Cultural expectations for life events (e.g., marriage, career, children).
What are the three adult attachment styles?
- Secure: Trusting in relationships.
- Avoidant: Emotionally distant.
- Anxious: Fear of abandonment.
What is socioemotional selectivity theory (SST)?
As people age, they prioritize emotionally meaningful relationships.
What are longitudinal and cross-sectional studies?
Longitudinal: Tracks the same group over time.
Cross-sectional: Compares different age groups at one time.
What is ‘theory of mind’? Explain the Band-Aid study.
The ability to understand others’ thoughts. In the Band-Aid study, kids thought others would know what they knew.
What are Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development?
- Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year) – Learning to trust caregivers.
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years) – Developing independence.
- Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years) – Learning to take initiative in activities.
- Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years) – Mastering skills and comparing to peers.
- Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence) – Exploring personal identity.
- Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood) – Forming meaningful relationships.
- Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood) – Contributing to society.
- Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age) – Reflecting on life with fulfillment or regret.
What types of behaviors are measured in infant studies?
Reflexes, gaze patterns, sucking rate, habituation/dishabituation, facial expressions.
What is novelty preference? How is it measured?
Infants prefer looking at new stimuli over familiar objects.
What is ‘theory of mind’? Describe the experimental example used to explain this (i.e., the Band-Aid study).
Theory of mind is the ability to understand that others have different thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives.
- Band-Aid study: A child is shown a Band-Aid box that actually contains pencils. When asked what another child (who hasn’t seen inside) would think is in the box, younger children (under 4) say ‘pencils’ (showing no theory of mind), while older children say ‘Band-Aids’ (demonstrating theory of mind).
What is assent? Why is it important?
Assent: A child’s agreement to participate in research, even though they may not legally consent.
Importance: Ensures ethical treatment of children in studies, giving them a voice in decisions about their participation.
