Chapter 4

Question 1

Variable language

Answer 1

Study variations in attributes among people and artefacts. A concept that shows variation in values is a variable.

Question 2

Careful thinking

Answer 2

Identify properties of content that represents theoretical concepts and transform into numbers

Question 3

Measurement

Answer 3

Reliable and valid process of assigning numbers to units of content.

Question 4

Measurement failure =

Answer 4

Unreliable and invalid data - inaccurate conclusions. CA: waste of effort.

Question 5

CA: intercoder reliability:

Answer 5

Trained coders apply the same classification rules in a predetermined protocol to same content.

Question 6

Validity:

Answer 6

Assignment of numbers represents the concept being studied
By counting unambiguous recognisable verbal events.

Question 7

A common problem

Answer 7

Isolating a phenomena enables us to study it, removes it from the context, resulting in distortion of the understanding.

Question 8

In CA:

Answer 8

Reducing a body of content into units risks losing communication context
Success of our predictions based on our use of content units must validate the choice of the variables we study and the ways measured.

Question 9

Level of measurement for our variables must correspond to the phrasing of relationships among variables in our hypothesis.

Question 10

Broadcast level:

Answer 10

Content forms, manifest ways decomposed in parts.

Question 11

Units of observation

Answer 11

content likely to include variables of interest.

Question 12

Units of analysis

Answer 12

Includes the variables of interest measured at a level informed by our hypothesis or questions

Question 13

Using more than one communication form

Answer 13

Will increase since the increase of web based materials.

Question 14

Problems associated with measuring non text forms

Answer 14

• Non-text adds dimension: can cloud the manifest content of communication. Meaning of words and symbol, involves inflection, tone and body language. Difficult to interpret and categorise
• Visual can create analysis problems - ambiguities that are not resolved within the message.
• Reliability on the expense of validity when studying content variables

Question 15

Shared meaning:

Answer 15

Written text provided within message cues that serves to reduce ambiguity.
Shared meanings of visuals are less common.

Question 16

Combinations of communication forms

Answer 16

Coding problems because of between forms.

Question 17

Multiform communication

Answer 17

Requires consistency if accurate communication is to occur.

Question 18

Inconsistent

Answer 18

Meaning of content becomes ambiguous, categorising more difficult.

Question 19

Units of observation:

Answer 19

Access to content containing the variable data that address that concern.

Question 20

More specific demarcations of content:

Answer 20

Focus our observation on content of interest.

Question 21

No system for specifying how many levels of observation units.

Answer 21

Successive definitions of units of observation to map the world so researchers can follow.

Question 22

Physical units:

Answer 22

Time and space measures. Occupy physical space measured by centimeters. Type of measure: should be based on type of information needed in the study, variables investigated and theoretical basis.

Allocation of content space or time is systematic and not random. Identifiable as nonrandom content patterns. Greater the space - greater impact on the audience.

Question 23

Meaning units

Answer 23

Physical qualities, less standardized. Meaning of the words that are of focus - richness and ambiguity to inferences from them to antecedent causes or effects.

Question 24

Symbolic units in CA are syntactical units:

Answer 24

Occur as discrete units in a language or medium. The word, particular verses in the bible? for example.

Question 25

Sampling concerns with unit of observation

Answer 25

Census or purposive sample of all units of observation, reasoning to justify the decision.
random sample? keep the rules of random sampling inference. Only generalize from a sample of one type of observation units to the population of such units from which the sample was taken

Question 26

Units of analysis=

Answer 26

Demarcated content which we can define and observe one or more variables
Data that can give us an answer. Heart of work: Define variables in our hypothesis, observable in content, quantify what we have found.

Question 27

This stage: two types of decisions of critical theoretical and empirical importance:

Answer 27

Definitions of content (classification into categories) and measurement of content (level of measurement)

Question 28

CA protocols

Answer 28

Descriptions for how content can be observed and classified into categories.

Question 29

Each content variable

Answer 29

At least two categories in which the content unit are placed.
One or more types of clothing: level of measurement: dichotomous variable (revealing or not revealing) or do we have a scale

Question 30

Classification

Answer 30

Collection of definitions that link observed content to the theoretical, conceptual variables. Nominal: categories. Translates messages into variables by assigning content units to categories.

Question 31

Deese: typology in conceptualizing CA variables frequently used:

Answer 31

Grouping: Content place into groups when units of analysis share common attribute.

Class structure: groups have hierarchical relation (some higher than others)
Three levels of abstraction: general, doctrinal, and substantive

Dimensional ordering or scaling: Classified based on numerical scale.

Five properties involving scaling: 1. intensity, numeouristy, probability, position or length and time

Spatial representation and models: language thought of as representing a cognitive space or map.

Meaning of words: placed in a mental spatial model for a person to evaluate objects, issues and people. Content has two or more dimensions that need description. Semantic differential through CA. Explore complex meanings attached to symbols.

Abstract relations:
Tv characters? Classification system can specify and make more concrete these abstract relations expressed in content

Binary attribute structure:
Characteristics to a person often have an opposite. Good opposite to bad, this can be found in content, although concepts need to be thought

Question 32

Content classification relates

Answer 32

To the validity of the concepts.

Question 33

Selection of classification system for content should have a theoretical basis. Validity argued logically and empirical

Answer 33

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Question 34

Classification System requirement (Must meet particular requirements dictated by the logic of empirical inquiry.
Necessary to establish the validity of concepts
Creating categories required instructions so they can be coded reliably.)

Answer 34

Meet requirements: 1. Reflect the purpose of the research, 2. mutually exclusive, 3. be exhaustive, 4. be independent, 5. be derived from a single classification principle

Question 35

Purpose of research

Answer 35

Define variables theoretically
Coding instructions must specify how and why content units will be placed in categories for variables.

Question 36

Classification systems:

Answer 36

Mutually exclusive when assigning numbers.

Question 37

Using statistics to study patterns requires

Answer 37

That units be unambiguous in meaning - giving more than one number to a content created ambiguity

Question 38

Problem?

Answer 38

Select smaller units of analysis that can be classified in mutually exclusive ways. Instead of the article as unit: statements within the article are the focus.

Question 39

Exhaustive:

Answer 39

Every unit of content must fit into a subcategory - easy for content with a lot of attention. May fall into another section instead. Don’t use others too often.

Extensive pretesting with similar content will create categories that are exhaustive.

Question 40

Independence

Answer 40

Placing content does not influence the placement of the other units. Important in assessment of coder reliability and statistical analysis.

Question 41

Coder reliability:

Answer 41

Both agreements and disagreements, may be forced by coding instructions.

Question 42

Each category should have a single classification principle

Answer 42

That separates different levels of analysis.
Each separate rules for classifying units.
(Systems without classification violate the mutually exclusive rule.)

Question 43

Level of Measurement

Answer 43

Content: one of four levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.

Question 44

Nominal:

Answer 44

Numbers to categories of content. Arbitrary. No meaning just connecting.

Question 45

Dummy variables

Answer 45

Calculate presence of multiple candidates in a tweet by combining these dummy variables into new variables with a statistical package.

Question 46

Multivariable approach:

Answer 46

Each category becomes a variable with one number for having variable characteristic - same article placed in more than one classification.

Question 47

CA options to create variables that control multiple meanings to occur:

Answer 47

Break into smaller units. Fewer alternative interpretations.

Question 48

Negatives with multi variables:

Answer 48

Entirety artificial variety into coding, contingencies intrinsic to multiple valued accounts of phenomena are lost. Produce more unreliable variables. Less information about reliability of the protocol.

Question 49

Observation units

Answer 49

Can be manipulated to form different analysis units. (Dummy more consistensy)

Question 50

Ordinal measures:

Answer 50

Content units into categories, but with an order.
Intervals have an order, but differences between numbers are equal. each interval are equal to all intervals.

Question 51

Ratio:

Answer 51

Meaningful zero point.
Ratio: allows to compare relative emphasis regardless of number of units. Interval and ratio: more sophisticated statistical procedures, computation of means and measures of dispersion (variance and SD) Multiple regression: control stat for influence of a variety of variables.

Question 52

Importance of measurement levels

Answer 52

Two rules: theoretically appropriate and much information.
Theo; reflect the nature of the content.
Level of measurement: determined what statistical procedures can be used. Interval and ratio: parametric procedures, describe more precisely. Nominal is parametic: less information about patterns

Question 53

Rules of Enumeration

Answer 53

Requires creation of rules coders must follow for connecting content with numbers. Number represents the level of measurement.
Nominal: arbitrary picking numbers for the groups
Interval or ratio: instructions how part of the physical content to include or exclude

COUNT words in text - description on which words to count.
Clear and consistent rules
Success: affects the reliability and validity. Consistent numbering of content.

Question 54

Measurement Steps
Process of measuring content

Answer 54

Develop research question - identify variables (level of measurement)

Examine existing literature that has used the variable and measurement.
Build on whats already known. Theoretical definitions. Face validity in measure.

Use good previous measures, adjust your measures if not good. reviewing literature. Use it critically.

Modified: new one should have face validity consistent with existing measures. Reducing measurement error

Create coding instructions: content categories for each variable in detail.

Detailed: higher reliability. Don’t make it too difficult.

Defining: selecting among type of content, setting up classification system, and deciding enumeration rules. Create coding system for recording data into computer. Include coding sheets.

Criteria: efficacy in data input and keeping costs down. Variables arranges and numbered

Question 55

Summary:

Answer 55

Measurement: process of moving from theoretical definitions of concepts to numerical representations of those concepts as variables.

Operationalisation. Identifying content of interest and designing classification system = content units to develop definitions of variables and categories for variables. Must be translated to numbers - level of measurement, classifying content and rules for applying numbers to the content.

Coding instructions that maximise the validity and reliability of measurements of content concepts of interest.
Coders to replicate. Measures are statistically analysed to address study hypothesis and RQ.