Chapter 4

Question 1

What is a literature review?

Answer 1

It is a carefully crafted summary of the recent studies on a topic with key findings and research methods. It carefully documents the sources in the review summary.

Question 2

What is characterised as information is the form of words or photos?

Answer 2

Soft data, used in qualitative studies.

Question 3

What is characterised as information in the form of numbers and statistics?

Answer 3

Hard data, used in quantitative studies.

Question 4

Who speaks the language of cases and contexts?

Answer 4

Qualitative studies.

Question 5

Who speaks the language of variables and hypotheses?

Answer 5

Quantitative studies.

Question 6

What is a non-linear path of theorising?

Answer 6

Rather than moving in a straight line, a nonlinear research path makes successive passes through steps. It may move backward and sideways before moving on. It is more of a spiral, moving slowly upward but not directly. With each cycle or repetition, you collect new data and gain new insights. Nonlinear paths are highly relevant for understanding complex phenomena, which can help one to change their perspective, as it is aimed at grasping nuances.

Question 7

What is a linear path of theorising?

Answer 7

A linear research path follows a fixed sequence of steps; it is like a staircase leading in one clear direction.

Question 8

What is the direction of theorising in a qualitative study?

Answer 8

You begin data collection with only a general topic. Then, you focus the research question and continue with the collection and analysis of the data. Adjusting the research question during other steps is necessary because researchers are often unaware of the most important issues, until they are immersed in the data. This helps to grasp nuances of social phenomena and it is more difficult.

Question 9

What is the direction of theorising in a quantitative study?

Answer 9

You would begin with a topic that will next be narrowed down into a focused research question. This research question will guide the design of the study. Data collection follows after these steps.

Question 10

What is interpretation?

Answer 10

Interpretation refers to assigning coherence to something. In a qualitative study, you give meaning by examining textual or visual data. This is done to convey an authentic voice, and in a manner to remain true to the original understandings of the people being studied.

Question 11

What are the three types of interpretation?

Answer 11

First-order interpretation (This is the viewpoint of the people that are being studied. The goal is to grasp fully how they see the world and define situations and their meanings), Second-order interpretation (This refers to the researcher’s own viewpoint. Their perspective often brings a broader meaning to the specific data in context), Third-order interpretation (This refers to the connections a researcher makes between the detailed understandings of specific people and abstract concepts, generalisations, or theories used to analyse the data).

Question 12

What are variables?

Answer 12

A variable is a concept that varies.

Question 13

What are attributes?

Answer 13

The values or the categories of a variable are its attributes.

Question 14

What is the relationship between variables and attributes?

Answer 14

The confusion arises because the attribute of one variable can itself become a separate variable with a slight change in definition. The distinction is between concepts themselves that vary and conditions within concepts that vary.

Question 15

What is the dependent variable?

Answer 15

The dependent variable is the one that is the effect of another variable. Its name comes from its position of “depending on” the cause.

Question 16

What is the independent variable?

Answer 16

The cause or independent variable, or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on something else. It gets its name because it operates “independent of” prior causes that may act on it.

Question 17

What is the intervening variable?

Answer 17

The intervening variable appears in complex causal relations. It comes between the independent and dependent variables in time. Its role is to show the link or mechanism between the main variables of the relationship.

Question 18

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 18

A hypothesis is a proposition to test or a tentative statement that two variables are causally related. In some respects, hypotheses are your informed guesses about how the world works stated in a value neutral form.

Question 19

What is the logic of the discomforming hypotheses?

Answer 19

It argues that the role of this approach is to find evidence that rejects the null hypothesis so that confidence in the alternative can be built. The null hypothesis predicts no relationship. On the contrary, the alternative (or experimental) hypothesis says that a relationship exists. If the null is deemed correct, then the alternative must be incorrect. However, if the null is deemed to be incorrect, the alternative cannot be immediately deemed correct. Future research is required.

Question 20

What is a level of analysis? What are those levels?

Answer 20

Social reality has several levels. A level of analysis refers to the level of social reality in a theoretical explanation.
The level varies on a continuum from micro level (e.g., small groups or interactions among individuals) to macro level (e.g., rise and fall of civilisations or the structural aspects of a society).

Question 21

What is a unit of analysis? Give examples.

Answer 21

The unit of analysis refers to the type of unit you use when measuring concepts and variables. Common units in social science are the individual person, the group, an institution etc.

Question 22

What is an ecological fallacy? How does it appear?

Answer 22

An ecological fallacy is a type of error that arises from a mismatch of units of analysis. It refers to a poor fit between the units for which you have empirical evidence and the units for which you want to make general statements.
You make an ecological fallacy when you have data at high or aggregated units of analysis but make statements about low or disaggregated units. It is a fallacy because what happens in one unit of analysis does not always hold for a different unit of analysis.

Question 23

What is reductionism? How does it appear?

Answer 23

Reductionism is a type of error that arises from a mismatch of units of analysis. It refers to a poor fit between the units for which you have empirical evidence and the units for which you want to make general statements.
This error occurs when you explain macro-level events using evidence only about specific individuals. It occurs when you observe a lower or disaggregated unit of analysis but then make statements about higher or aggregated units.

Question 24

What is spuriousness?

Answer 24

A spurious relationship is when two elements seem to be in a causal relationship but they actually aren’t. What causes this situation is a third, hidden element that influences the relationship. This third element is the true cause.

Question 25

What is the relationship between a research question and a hypothesis?

Answer 25

A good research question contains hints about hypotheses. In addition, you can think of the hypothesis as providing a tentative answer to the research question. You can develop several hypotheses for one research question.