Chapter 38 - The functional neuroanatomy of learning and memory

Question 1

Two lines will be followed in this chapter, which?

Answer 1

This chapter describes the kinds of learning and memory which are
relevant for clinical practice and how they are defined and delineated.

Two main lines will be followed; one which divides information
processing with respect to time, and another with respect to contents. (p. 793)

Question 2

What is anterograde amnesia?

Answer 2

The term anterograde amnesia is used

when the long-term acquisition (i.e., new learning) of information is lost.

Question 3

What is retrograde amnesia?

Answer 3

The term retrograde amnesia is applied when a patient is unable to
retrieve information which is already stored in long-term memory.

Question 4

Name the seven types of learning;

Answer 4

(1) Signal learning or classical conditioning
(2) Stimulus-response learning or instrumental conditioning
(3) Chaining (including verbal association)
(4) Multiple discrimination
(5) Concept learning
(6) Principle learning
(7) Problem-solving

Question 5

Explain what is meant with (1) Signal learning or classical conditioning

Answer 5

This form of learning became most well known as Pavlovian
conditioning. The dog, who after a few pairings of a bell with a piece of
meat soon salivates already to the sound, is an example. In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus occurs independent of the
subject’s behaviour.

Question 6

Explain what is meant with (2) Stimulus-response learning or instrumental conditioning

Answer 6

Instrumental conditioning is dependent on the subject’s behaviour. The
subject learns the association between a stimulus and a response.

Question 7

Explain what is meant with (3) Chaining (including verbal association)

Answer 7

Chaining refers to several consecutive responses where each response
determines the next. (E.g., only several responses, which build up on
each other may lead to a reward.)

Question 8

Explain what is meant with (4) Multiple discrimination

Answer 8

Learning to differentiate between stimuli, which have one or more
attributes in common.

Question 9

Explain what is meant with (5) Concept learning

Answer 9

Learning to respond in the same way to a variety of objects or attributes
of objects, which have something in common.

Question 10

Explain what is meant with (6) Principle learning

Answer 10

Acquiring knowledge on how to master a set of problems which have
common attributes.

Question 11

Explain what is meant with (7) Problem-solving

Answer 11

Making proper use of learned principles and having insight (being able to
draw inferences).

Question 12

What does ecphory mean?

Answer 12

Ecphory refers to the process wherein retrieval
cues interact with stored information such that a representation of the
searched information becomes activated.
Ecphory furthermore points at
the fact that there are different ways in which information can be retrieved. (p. 794).

Question 13

If you need a definition of memory and learning you will find this on which page?

Answer 13

p. 794
Learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioural tendency
that occurs as a result of reinforced practice (Kimble, 1961).
Memory is the learning dependent storage of ontogenetically
acquired information. This information integrates into phylogenetic
neuronal structures selectively and with respect to the given species so
that it can be retrieved at all times. This means that it can be provided
for situation-dependent behaviour. Generally formulated, memory is
based on conditioned changes of the transfer properties in neuronal
nets so that under specific circumstances those system modifications
engrams) which correspond to neuromotoric signals and behavioural
tendencies become fully or partially reproducable (Sinz 1979).

Question 14

Name the four types of memory

Answer 14

• The episodic memory
• Declarative memory also
  termed semantic memory
• Procedural memory
• Perceptual memory

(Priming is also mentioned in this context)

Question 15

Explain what The episodic memory is

Answer 15

The episodic memory system is context-specific
with respect to time and place. It allows a mental time travel. Examples
are episodes such as the last vacation or the dinner of the previous night

Question 16

Explain what Declarative memory/Semantic memory is.

Answer 16

Declarative memory is context-free and refers to general facts. it is
termed semantic memory or the knowledge systems, as well.

Question 17

Explain what Procedural

memory is

Answer 17

Procedural
memory is largely motor-based, but includes also sensory and cognitive
skills

Question 18

Explain what Perceptual memory is

Answer 18

Perceptual memory

Refers to the recognition of stimuli and is related to familiarity judgments.

Question 19

Explain what priming is, regarding memory functioning.

Answer 19

Priming refers to a higher likeliness of re-identifying

previously perceived stimuli.

Question 20

Is there boxes that are impossible to condense but gives a nice overview of the time dimension of memory and the content-dependent dimension of memory on page 796?

Answer 20

Yes look it up it’s dope.

Question 21

Name some patient groups who usually show

memory disturbances.

Answer 21

Intra-cranial tumours,
cerebral infarcts, ruptured aneurysms
closed head injury
viral infections
avitaminoses (e.g. B1 deficiency)
Etc. look them up on page. 798

Question 22

What is the physiological

correlates of short-term memory mechanisms?

Answer 22

The physiological
correlates of short-term forms are facilitated neuronal responses increases in the magnitude of excitatory postsynaptic potentials formed
between sensory and motor neurones

Question 23

What is the physiological

correlates of long-term memory mechanisms?

Answer 23

the long-term forms
which were elicited by repeated stimulus applications required new ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein synthesis, involving the growth of
new synaptic connections between sensory and motor neurones. p. 797

Question 24

Which brain areas are involved in classical conditioning?

Answer 24

Classical conditioning and other simple correlates of memory largely
take place within the spinal cord and brain stem; certain other subtypes,
however, may engage structures in various other loci of the brain. Fear
conditioning, for example, involves the amygdala.

Question 25

Which brain areas are involved in priming?

Answer 25

Priming (a nonreflected
unconscious transmission of information) activates cortical
areas - largely, though probably not exclusively, within the particular modality of the stimulus (‘unimodal’ primary and association cortex).

Question 26

Which brain areas are involved in procedural memory?

Answer 26

Procedural memory engages the basal ganglia; it may also involve
portions of the cerebellum, though the evidence is mixed.

Question 27

Which brain areas are involved in perceptual, semantic and episodic memory?

Answer 27

More complex brain circuits are recruited by perceptual, semantic and
episodic memory. For these forms, it is necessary to differentiate between
the stages of information transfer listed on page 796, box 38.3
Registration,
Encoding
Consolidation
Storage
and Retrieval

Information of the declarative and episodic memory systems enters
the brain via the sensory channels, and is then stored online or short-term in cortical association areas, particularly of the lateral parietal cortex From there it is transmitted to
the limbic system. Within the various structures and fibre networks involved in this system, the processes of selecting, binding, associating, and assigning occur. The hippocampal formation can be regarded as the core of the limbic system.

Question 28

Is the basal forebrain also important for memory function?

Answer 28

Yeeeep..
The basal forebrain is important for
unimpaired episodic and semantic memory function. This is, at least in part, due to its intimate connections with other memory-related neural
networks (e.g. via the fornix). The basal forebrain is composed of a
number of components of divergent evolutionary origin including fibre
connections.

Question 29

Is there any biochemical system of special importance to memory?

Answer 29

the cholinergic system (basal
nucleus of Meynert, septal nuclei, diagonal band of Broca, the nucleus
accumbens, and other parts of the ventral striatum) plays an important
role. The cholinergic system has long been implicated in the highest
cognitive functions, including memory and consciousness

Question 30

Does table 38.2 give an overview of all the brain areas linked to memory?

Answer 30

No.
But 38.3 does huehue.

https://goo.gl/R8p1vU

Question 31

Which structures is the basolateral limbic circuit is composed of?

Answer 31

The
basolateral limbic circuit is composed of three structures and their interconnecting fibres.
The structures are the amygdala, the mediodorsal
thalamus, and the subcallosal area within the basal forebrain. The
unidirectional ventral amygdalofugal pathway leads from the amygdala to
the mediodorsal thalamus. From there, fibres reach the subcallosal area
which then projects via the bandeletta diagonalis back into the
amygdaloid body.

Question 32

What is the function of the basolateral limbic circuit?

Answer 32

The basolateral limbic circuit evaluates the affective
aspects of incoming information. Importantly, it interacts with the medial
“cognitive” circuit.

Question 33

What is the medial circuit?

Answer 33

The traditional view includes four structures in the medial circuit: the mammillary bodies, the anterior thalamus, the cingulate cortex, and the
hippocampal formation. The cingulate cortex can perhaps be omitted
because of both its functional engagement and the existence of direct projections between the anterior
thalamus and parts of the hippocampal formation p. 802

Question 34

What does the medial circuit do?

Answer 34

The medial circuit is regarded as the circuit
which mediates the cognitive evaluation, binding, and assignment of
information for long-term storage. p. 802

Question 35

Do you want to see a figure of the limbic system and basal ganglia involved in different memory functioning?

Answer 35

See Fig. 38.6 on p. 803

Question 36

Overall, information is assumed to be STORED in widespread neural
networks regarding episodic and semantic information; where?

And which area does episodic autobiographical information furtheremore draw information from?

Answer 36

For episodic and semantic information, these networks are mainly situated within neocortical structures (association cortex,
polysensory cortex). However, the storage of these forms of memory
may additionally recruit allocortical and subcortical regions.

Episodic autobiographical information, which is usually associated with emotions,
typically requires input from the amygdala and/or the septal region.
they furthermore depend on a neuronal pathway from the brain stem reticular formation to the neocortex

Question 37

Which brain circuits are involved in memory RETRIEVAL?

Answer 37

Functional neuroimaging data have shown that
portions of the prefrontal and medial temporal cortices are recruited
during the recollection of autobiographic episodes.

This is because episodic-autobiographical information usually is reconstructive in nature. (we make the shit up)

Moreover, the hippocampal formation may mediate the re-encoding of retrieved information