Chapter 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?

Question 1

1) Name three things Germany objected to in the Treaty of Versailles (ToV)

Answer 1

the territorial provisions,
the disarmament clauses,
war-guilt
reparations.

Question 2

2) What intensified Germany’s anger about the ‘November Criminals’?

Answer 2

The dissatisfied powers were likely to seek changes when they could. Germany’s anger was intensified by the belief among many that it had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by the ‘November Criminals’ in 1918.

Question 3

3) Write down 6 ways Hitler broke the ToV and the Treaty of Saint Germain

Answer 3

Almost all Hitler’s foreign policy actions and demands involved violations of the Treaty of Versailles or Treaty of Saint Germain – rearmament, Anschluss, takeover of the Sudetenland, the occupation of Prague, the seizure of Memel and claims made over Danzig and the Polish Corridor. Challenging the hated treaties helped make and keep Hitler popular in Germany.

Question 4

4) What was the common view of the ToV in Britain by 1930?

Answer 4

The Treaty also had an impact on British and French opinion. To begin with the British were satisfied by the harsh, punitive nature of the treaty. However, some began to question its fairness. By the early 1930s a common view in British government circles was that the treatment of Germany had been too harsh. The emergence of Hitler and the Nazis was seen as an understandable response to excessive punishment. It followed that British politicians should assist Germany in achieving peaceful revision of the treaty which the British had been partially responsible for imposing.

The French thought the treaty hadn’t been harsh enough. They had wanted to permanently disable Germany in order to guarantee their own security. By the mid-1930s it was clear Hitler was seeking to overturn the settlement. The French didn’t feel strong enough to stand up to Hitler on their own so they acted in partnership with the British

Question 5

5) The Versailles Settlement created several inconsistencies- what were these?

Answer 5

• The separation of East Prussia from most of Germany by the Polish Corridor
• The placing of Danzig, overwhelmingly populated by Germans, under League of Nations control
• The placing of 3 ½ million Germans under Czech rule in the Sudetenland

Question 6

Consequences of the League of Nations in 1930

6) What country invaded Manchuria?

Answer 6

When Japan invaded Manchuria the eyes of the world were focused on the League. This was its first serious challenge from a great power. If the League was firm and decisive it would act as a warning to others wanting to expand their territory. Its failure had the opposite effect. Japan realised that without the membership of the US or Russia there was little the League could do to stop further expansion at the expense of China.

Question 7

7) When was Russia admitted to the league?

Answer 7

Although Russia was admitted to the League in 1934 it was clear Stalin’s immediate concern was agricultural and industrial reform. Therefore the Japanese invasion of China continued without effective challenge in 1937.

Question 8

8) Why did Russia’s admittance to the league not impact the Japanese invasion of China?

Answer 8

Although Russia was admitted to the League in 1934 it was clear Stalin’s immediate concern was agricultural and industrial reform. Therefore the Japanese invasion of China continued without effective challenge in 1937

Question 9

9) Who did Mussolini invade?

Answer 9

Mussolini invaded Abyssinia

Question 10

10) Why did the League look weak when it attempted to deal with Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia?

Answer 10

when Mussolini invaded Abyssinia it at first seemed the League were jolted into taking firm action as they imposed economic sanctions on Italy. But these sanctions excluded coal and oil and the League was exposed as guilty of double-dealing when the Hoare-Laval Pact came to light.

Question 11

11) Mussolini and Hitler were delighted with the League of Nations- why?

Answer 11

Both Mussolini and Hitler were delighted that the League seemed weak and unable to put internationalism ahead of national interests. This made further aggression from Italy very likely and Hitler became confident to could successfully challenge the Treaty of Versailles.

Question 12

12) Why did the league fail to achieve disarmament?

Answer 12

The League also failed to achieve disarmament. Indeed, following a period of reduced spending on defences during the Depression and with the public against large-scale military spending Britain and France decided to rearm as a deterrent to Italy and Germany.

Question 13

13) Along with disarmament what ‘a’ describes another key failure of the League of Nations?

Answer 13

By the summer of 1936 it was clear that rearmament was a top priority, but it was unlikely to preserve world peace on its own. Whilst defences were being built-up a policy of appeasement was adopted towards the dictators. Both rearmament and appeasement can be seen as the result of failures of the League of Nations.

Question 14

Hitler’s foreign policy aims

14) Memorise the date Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany

Answer 14

Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933

Question 15

15) What did Hitler do with the Rhineland that broke the Treaty of Versailles?

Answer 15

The Treaty of Versailles had declared the Rhineland a demilitarised zone and authorised an army of occupation of the west bank of the Rhine for 15 years. In fact allied troops left after 10 years. The demilitarised Rhineland was a constant reminder to Germans of their humiliation. It allowed western armies to invade at will – as the French and Belgians had done in January 1923.

With two divisions of troops against a possible opposition force of 200 divisions, German forces marched into the Rhineland in March 1936. As Hitler had predicted, neither Britain nor France had any desire for war over this issue. The Rhineland was widely regarded as Germany’s ‘backyard’ and both French and British leaders realised it would be foolhardy to risk European peace over whether or not German troops should be allowed to occupy part of their own country. The French were also in the middle of a financial crisis and six weeks away from elections.

Hitler followed his Rhineland triumph with further promises of peaceful intentions, suggesting a 25-year non-aggression pact with the western powers.

Question 16

16) What is remilitarisation?

Answer 16

Destroying the Treaty of Versailles – introducing conscription; building up the army, navy and airforce; securing Germany’s western frontier by remilitarising and refortifying the Rhineland; regaining territory taken from Germany

Question 17

17) What is Grossdeutsland?

Answer 17

Creating a Greater Germany

Question 18

18) Name two actions Grossdeutsland led to

Answer 18

Grossdeutschland – all German speaking people would be brought into the Reich; the frontiers of Germany would be extended to cover areas where the population were largely German, including Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia and Poland

Question 19

19) Write down the German word for ‘living space.’

Answer 19

Lebensraum –

Question 20

20) How would Lebensraum be achieved?

Answer 20

Hitler thought it the entitlement of Germans to have extra land for recreation and cultivation. This would be achieved by expanding eastwards into Poland and Russia

Question 21

Hitler’s foreign policy 1933-1935

21) What happened in January 1935?

Answer 21

January 1935: Saar plebiscite – this took place in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles. Over 90% voted in favour of return to Germany. Germany had now peacefully and legally regained its first piece of lost territory

Question 22

22) How did Italy, Britain and France respond to Hitler’s reintroduction of conscription?

Answer 22

March 1935: reintroduction of conscription – Hitler announced his intention of building up his army to 36 divisions (550,000 men) and creating a military airforce. This was a direct challenge to Italy, Britain and France. They responded by forming the Stresa Front which issued a strongly worded protest against this breaking of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. France, Czechoslovakia and Russia also signalled concern by signing mutual assistance pacts

Question 23

23) Why was the Anglo –German Naval Agreement beneficial for Germany ?

Answer 23

June 1935: Anglo-German Naval Agreement – this allowed Germany to have a fleet which was 35% the size of Britain’s, with submarines at 45%. It essentially legalised German naval rearmament and was made without the prior agreement of France or Italy. It gave the impression that following national interests regardless of others was acceptable and it encouraged Mussolini to be equally selfish in extending Italy’s colonies

Question 24

24) What year did Germany refuse to pay any more reparations?

Answer 24

1933: Germany refused to pay any more reparations, left the World Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations and secretly began rearming

Question 25

Hitler’s foreign policy 1936-1938

25) What date did Hitler march into the Rhineland?

Answer 25

German forces marched into the Rhineland in March 1936.

Question 26

26) Why was the Rhineland initially humiliating for Germany?

Answer 26

The demilitarised Rhineland was a constant reminder to Germans of their humiliation. It allowed western armies to invade at will – as the French and Belgians had done in January 1923.

Question 27

27) Write down two reasons why France and Britain did not interfere with Hitler’s takeover of the Rhineland.

Answer 27

The Rhineland was widely regarded as Germany’s ‘backyard’ and both French and British leaders realised it would be foolhardy to risk European peace over whether or not German troops should be allowed to occupy part of their own country. The French were also in the middle of a financial crisis and six weeks away from elections.

Question 28

Spanish Civil War

28) On what dates did the Spanish Civil war happen?

Answer 28

In July 1936

Question 29

29) Who started the war?

Answer 29

General Franco started the Spanish Civil War

Question 30

30) What party was he fighting against?

Answer 30

when he led a right-wing revolt against the democratically elected, republican government of the Popular Front – a mixture of socialists, communists and anarchists. Franco’s right-wing, nationalist alliance included the Falange, Spain’s fascist party founded in 1933.

Question 31

31) Why did Hitler and Mussolini support him?

Answer 31

Hitler and Mussolini supported their fellow fascist. Stalin supported the Republicans. The Spanish Civil War became a battleground for rival ideologies and 1000s of volunteers – including George Orwell - went to Spain to fight fascism.

Question 32

32) How many died in the war?

Answer 32

After 30 months of bitter struggle and 750,000 deaths

Question 33

33) Who won the war?

Answer 33

the Nationalists won and Franco established a fascist-style government.

Question 34

34) In what way did Hitler not benefit from the war?

Answer 34

Hitler hoped that if Franco was successful the Spain would become an ally of Germany on France’s south-western border and giving the German navy access to Spanish naval bases. However, after winning the Civil War Franco opted to remain neutral during WW2, concentrating on Spain’s domestic problems.

Question 35

35) How did Hitler use the opportunity to unite with Mussolini?

Answer 35

As Italy and Germany were acting together Hitler was able to persuade Mussolini to abandon Britain and France. Whilst not yet a formal alliance, Mussolini spoke of the ‘Rome-Berlin Axis’ in a speech in November 1936

Question 36

36) What was the underlying purpose of the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1936

Answer 36

The Anti-Comintern Pact was signed by Germany and Japan in 1936, with Italy joining in November 1937. It was in name directed against the Comintern – or Communist International – which was the Soviet agency for promoting worldwide communist revolution. The real purpose was to ensure that neither Germany nor Japan would assist Russia if Russia attacked either of them.

Question 37

Anschluss

37) What date did German Army march into the Anschluss?

Answer 37

12 March 1938

Question 38

38) What happened to Chancellor Schuschnigg?

Answer 38

Schuschnigg was bullied into appointing Seyss-Inquart, a leading Austrian Nazi, as Minister of the Interior. Suspecting that Hitler wanted to destroy Austrian independence, Schuschnigg decided to hold a plebiscite on this issue on 13th March 1938. When Hitler found out he demanded Schuschnigg resign and be replaced by Seyss-Inquart as Chancellor. Seyss-Inquart immediately requested the assistance of Germany in restoring order.

Question 39

Sudetenland

39) Why did Hitler hate Czechoslovakia?

Answer 39

Hitler particularly hated Czechoslovakia because it was the creation of the Treaty of Saint-German, part of the Versailles Settlement; it had an alliance with Russia and France; and it had a democratically elected government.

Question 40

40) Write down the name and dates of the three high level meetings held in Germany

Answer 40

Berchtesgarden, 15th September 1938
Hitler met British PM Neville Chamberlain and agreed, subject to approval by the British, French and Czech governments that the areas of the Sudetenland in which the majority of the population were German should be given to Germany.

Bad Godesburg, 22nd September 1938
Chamberlain reported to Hitler that the British, French and Czech governments had given their approval. Hitler then claimed he must have all the Sudetenland immediately and that there would be war if the Czechs didn’t withdraw from Sudeten areas by 1st October. Chamberlain was appalled at Hitler’s change of heart and returned to London to prepare for war. Instructions were given for the mobilisation of the French army and British navy.

Munich, 29th September 1938

Question 41

41) Why was the Munich agreement unfair to the Czech government?

Answer 41

When Hitler realised he was on the brink of war he agreed to Chamberlain’s suggestion, supported by Mussolini, of an international conference at Munich to settle the dispute. They were joined by Edouard Deladier, French PM. They agreed that the Sudenteland would be transferred to Germany over a 10-day period. Plebiscites would be held in any areas where there was a doubt over the dominant nationality. The four powers would guarantee the remainder of Czechoslovakia once Polish and Hungarian claims had been met.

Question 42

42) Why did Chamberlin think he had made ‘peace for our time’?

Answer 42

A few hours after the signing of the main agreement Chamberlain made a personal visit to Hitler armed with a document he invited Hitler to sign. This pledged Hitler and Mussolini to do everything to promote the peace of Europe and use the ‘method of consultation’ to resolve any mutual differences. Hitler had no objection to adding his signature to a collection of vague promises. Chamberlain returned to London claiming he had brought ‘peace for our time’.

Question 43

The Munich agreement

43) Note down three ways French and British involvement in the Munich Agreement can be criticised?

Answer 43

• Britain and France had abandoned Czechoslovakia to her fate
• Hitler had been appeased but was effectively encouraged to see Britain and France as weak and continue to push for more territory
• Britain and France could have gone to war against Hitler at this stage with the support of the 36 divisions of the Czech army fighting behind their well-prepared defences
• In the event of war Britain and France might have had the assistance or neutrality of Russia
• Germany gained time to strengthen its army, navy and airforce

Question 44

44) Note down three ways the French and British government can be defended in their involvement of the Munich Agreement.

Answer 44

• Chamberlain didn’t think Britain was sufficiently prepared for war in 1938
• Britain’s air defences were incomplete and vulnerable to a knockout blow from the Luftwaffe
• The British Dominions – Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa – were not united behind the prospect of war in 1938; they were by September 1939
• A war over the Sudetenland would have been seen as against the principle of self-determination

Question 45

In defence of Appeasement
45) There are 4 arguments in defence of appeasement. Note down what they were and what they included in a either list format or a spider diagram. Can you memorise them?

Answer 45

1. It allowed the correction of the injustices of Versailles
   By the 1930s many thought the Treaty of Versailles had been too harsh on Germany. There was some sympathy for Hitler’s demands. Few thought it unreasonable that Germany should be allowed the means to defend itself and make common cause with the substantial pockets of Germans living under foreign rule.

A strong-arm approach would have risked upsetting public opinion and offended the British Dominions who supported the notion of self-determination and intensifying the German sense of injustice.

2. It was sensible in the light of the increasing militarism of Japan and Italy
   Japan and Italy were also aggressive, militaristic regimes. There was a danger Britain could have found herself at war against Japan, Italy and Germany with France as her only major ally. Appeasement reflected the reality of Britain’s military weakness whilst she rearmed and improved her air defences.
3. It was popular
   The appeasers were all leaders of democratic countries where governments were decided by free elections. Politicians need to take account of public opinion to survive. Public opinion in Britain and France was overwhelmingly for peace after the horrific experiences of WW1. There was little support for rearmament or a stronger stand against Germany, Italy and Japan.
4. It was sensible in the light of the threat of communism
   In the 1930s there was also the threat of Soviet Russia and world communism. Some western politicians feared communism more than Nazism. One way to reduce the potential threat from Russia was to ensure there was a strong, anti-communist state in central Europe, committed to its destruction. Germany was such a country. Anti-communists found it convenient to support appeasement.

Question 46

46) How did Hitler’s takeover of Prague in Czechoslovakia in March 1939 symbolise a bid to dominate Europe?

Answer 46

Czechoslovakia was a multi-national state inhabited by Czechs, Magyars, Slavs, Ruthenes and others. Once the Sudetenland was transferred to Germany the rest of the state began to break up. Hitler wanted to gain control of the rest of Czechoslovakia which remained rich in agriculture and industry. Czech President Hacha was bullied into allowing the German army to occupy Prague on 15th March 1939.

Question 47

The British- French guarantee to Poland

47) Write down two reasons why Poland would become Germany’s next target

Answer 47

• Poland had been (re)created by the Treaty of Versailles
• Poland included territory that had been part of Germany before 1919, including West Prussia
• The Polish Corridor separated East Prussia from most of Germany
• Danzig, in the Polish Corridor, was populated mainly by Germans

Question 48

The Nazi-Soviet Pact

48) Why was the pact in August 1939 between Soviet Russia and Germany so surprising?

Answer 48

This was shocking in the light of the opposing ideologies of fascism and communism and Hitler’s open hatred of and desire to destroy communism and Russia herself. However, for Hitler it would give him the opportunity to deal with Britain and France after taking over Poland and for Stalin it would give him the chance to strengthen his defences and improve his military machine during a war between Germany and Britain and France which he expected to last for many years. Stalin also feared war on two fronts because of the hostility of Japan.
The Pact sealed the fate of Poland. If Hitler invaded now, as he made immediate plans to do, there was nothing Britain and France could do except to wage a general war against Germany. Hitler did not expect Anglo-French opposition to be any more serious than it had been over Czechoslovakia. He also felt stronger as Germany and Italy had become formal allies in the Pact of Steel of May

Question 49

The outbreak of war

49) What date was war declared on Germany?

Answer 49

Britain and France declared war on Germany following the German invasion of Poland on 1st September 1939.

Question 50

50) Why did the declaration of war surprise Hitler?

Answer 50

He thought that after the Nazi-Soviet Pact had been agreed the British and French would not be in a position to give effective help to Poland. He also thought, given previous developments – rearmament, the Rhineland, the Anschluss, the Sudetenland -that it would be out of character for Britain and France to go to war over a territory over which Germany had strong claims.

It could be argued that war broke out because of a miscalculation on Hitler’s part, but there seems little doubt war would have broken out sooner or later anyway. After March 1939 British and French patience had run out and war had been seen as inevitable.