Chapter 2: To What Extent Was The League Of Nations A Success

Question 1

1. Whose idea was it to form a League of Nations?

Answer 1

During WW1 a number of statesmen began discussing ways to avoid another international conflict. Although a number of options were considered, in the end it was decided to adopt an idea supported by the South African leader Jan Smuts and US President Woodrow Wilson: form a League of Nations.

Question 2

2. According to the covenant of the League of Nations what was its primary aims?

Answer 2

its primary aim was to preserve world peace, but it also attempted to promote international cooperation over a wide range of economic and social problems, including disarmament.

Question 3

3. In what way did the League of Nations fail in these aims?

Answer 3

League had clearly failed in its main aim when WW2 broke out in September 1939

Question 4

4. In what way did they succeed in these aims?

Answer 4

it did resolve some earlier conflicts and performed some useful work in tackling international problems.

Question 5

5. What were the main bodies of the league?

Answer 5

The Secretariat
The Assembly
The Council

Question 6

6. Describe the main functions of each body. What were their purposes?

Answer 6

The Secretariat
• This was the civil service of the League
• It performed all the administrative and financial work:
• Organised conferences
• Distributed agendas
• Monitored budgets
• Published reports

The Assembly
• Met once a year
• Every member of the League had one vote
• Considered matters of general policy
• Controlled the League’s budget
• Admitted new members
• Elected non-permanent members of the Council

The Council
• The executive body of the League
• Met four or five times a year in times of crisis
• Had permanent and non-permanent members
• In 1920 the permanent members were Britain, France, Italy and Japan
• In 1926 Germany became a permanent member
• Number of non-permanent members increased from 4 in 1920 to 11 in 1936

Question 7

7. What were the two largely independent bodies closely associated with the League called?

Answer 7

The Permanent Court of International Justice

The International Labour Organisation (ILO)

Question 8

8. Describe the main functions of these bodies. What were their purposes?

Answer 8

The Permanent Court of International Justice
• Based in the Hague
• Offered arbitration to countries in dispute
• Provided legal advice to the Council
• Staffed by 11 judges and four deputy judges elected for 9 years by the Council and Assembly

The International Labour Organisation (ILO)
• Based in Geneva
• Included representatives of government, employers and workers among its various committees
• Purpose was to promote good working practices with regard to issues such as working hours, women’s rights, child labour, employers’ liability
The League also set up a number of agencies, committees and commissions:

Question 9

9. The League set up a number of agencies, committees and commissions. Name them.

Answer 9

• Mandates Commission
• Danzig Commission
• Minorities Commission
• Intellectual Cooperation Organisation
• Special Committee for Drug Traffic

Question 10

10. What was the Mandates commission?

Answer 10

Mandates Commission – supervised the administration of Germany’s and Turkey’s former colonies by the victorious countries, especially Britain and France.

Question 11

11. What was the Danzig commission?

Answer 11

Danzig Commission – exercised direct League control over the former German city

Question 12

12. What was the minorities commission?

Answer 12

Minorities Commission – attempted to address ill-treatment of racial minorities

Question 13

13. What was the Intellectual Cooperation Organisation?

Answer 13

Intellectual Cooperation Organisation – promoted cultural exchanges and intellectual contact between academics, artists and writers

Question 14

14. What was the Special Committee for Drug Traffic?

Answer 14

Special Committee for Drug Traffic – campaigned to reduce drug misuse and drug smuggling

Question 15

15. Why was the League of Nations always limited to a certain extent?

Answer 15

The effectiveness of the League of Nations was limited from the start because of the absence of many countries and lack of commitment from others

Question 16

16. Why did the U.S.A refuse to join?

Answer 16

USA – the American Senate thought the League would drag them into future wars.

Question 17

17. Why did their refusal cause problems?

Answer 17

Their refusal to join meant the League was deprived of the world’s most wealthy and influential country. This limited the League’s prestige and ability to take action against aggressive countries

Question 18

18. Why didn’t Germany join?

Answer 18

Germany – wasn’t allowed to join until it had demonstrated peaceful intentions.

Question 19

19. How did Germany’s non-membership make the League look?

Answer 19

This made the league look like a club for victorious powers closely associated with the Treaty of Versailles.

Question 20

20. When did Germany join?

Answer 20

Germany was allowed to join in 1926 and became a permanent member of the Council.

Question 21

21. Why did they withdraw?

Answer 21

Hitler withdrew Germany when coming to power in 1933.

Question 22

22. The USSR (Russia) joined in 1934. Why were they initially not invited to join?

Answer 22

wasn’t invited to join the League because it was communist and committed to the overthrow of capitalism and countries such as Britain, France and Japan had been actively assisting the counter-revolution during the 1918-21 Russian Civil War.

Question 23

23. What year was the USSR (Russia) expelled from the League of Nations? Why were they expelled?

Answer 23

Later there was more tolerance on both sides and Russia did join in 1934, only to be expelled in December 1939 following the invasion of Finland

Question 24

24. Why did Japan leave the League of Nations?

Answer 24

was an original member but left in 1937 following the invasion of Manchuria and imposition of sanctions

Question 25

25. Who were the two only major members of the League of Nations throughout the entirety of its existence?

Answer 25

Britain and France – the only major members of the League throughout its existence. They had both been weakened by WW1 and had to shoulder responsibility for trying to make the League work. Yet Britain was also concerned with trying to maintain its empire while France was more concerned with increasing security against Germany. The League often took second place in the minds of British and French politicians.

Question 26

26. What was collective security?

Answer 26

Collective security was the intended means by which the League was to maintain peace.

Question 27

27. What were the three stages of collective security?

Answer 27

1. Moral disapproval – following an act of aggression the Council would meet and vote to condemn the action in the hope that knowing the weight of world opinion was against it the aggressive country would back down
2. Economic sanctions – if moral disapproval failed the Council could impose economic sanctions on the aggressor through trade boycotts and refusal of credit
3. Military sanctions – if economic sanctions failed the Council could send an army to assist the victim of the aggression

Question 28

28. Name three of the weaknesses of collective security.

Answer 28

1. The absence of the USA would reduce the effectiveness of moral disapproval and sanctions
2. All decisions of the Assembly or Council had to be unanimous – i.e. just one negative vote (apart from by the aggressor country itself) would make a motion fail
3. The League did not have an army itself. If military sanctions were to be used, member states would be asked to contribute to a military force. This would take time and there was no guarantee an appropriate army could be assembled. In reality, military force couldn’t be used where a major country was threatening world peace

Question 29

29. What did the Refugee Organisation accomplish?

Answer 29

The Refugee Organisation – faced the problem of many WW1 prisoners-of-war being stranded in Russia, Poland, France, Germany and Turkey. There were about 250,000 Russian s in German or French camps and 300,000 German and Austro-Hungarian soldiers in Russian camps. Also more than 1 million Greeks were made homeless during the 1919-23 Turkish War of Independence. The Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen and his staff worked on a very small budget with the Red Cross to help 450,000 return to their homes or find new homes between 1920 and 1922. Nansen’s work was an imaginative and logistical triumph that brought nothing but praise and thanks for the work of the League

Question 30

30. What did the Health Organisation accomplish?

Answer 30

The Health Organisation – under the inspirational leadership of Ludwig Rajchman this was one of the most successful of the League agencies. It established links with non-member countries such as Germany, Russia and the USA to provide an information service, technical assistance and advice on health matters. It helped Russia prevent a typhus epidemic in Siberia, in part by organising a public education campaign on health and sanitation. It also helped reduce leprosy and began an international campaign to exterminate mosquitoes, so reducing the spread of malaria and yellow fever. It helped set up research institutions in London, Copenhagen and Singapore which developed vaccines for diphtheria, tetanus and TB. It later became the World Health Organisation, affiliated to the UN.

Question 31

31. What did the Economic and financial organisations rescue plan for Austria consist of?

Answer 31

The Economic and Financial Organisation – Following WW1 a number of countries faced economic crisis. Austria was danger of financial collapse. The League devised a rescue plan to bring expenditure into line with reduced revenues. Action was taken to stabilise the currency by controlling interest rate, the circulation of banknotes and the issuing of credit. Austria was also given a large loan. Trade revived, unemployment fell and the budget was balanced. Similarly successful rescue programmes were devised for Hungary, Greece and Bulgaria

Question 32

32. What was the International Labour Organisation’s objective?

Answer 32

The International Labour Organisation – this was led by French socialist Albert Thomas Its main objective was to improve working conditions. It collected and published data on working conditions and issued recommendations including the eight-hour working day, the 48-hour working week, annual paid holidays, the right to join trade unions and a minimum employment age. It also published information on health and safety, including demonstrating that using white lead was dangerous. Implementation of recommendations was patchy but it became increasingly difficult for member states to ignore it.

Question 33

33. What was the Slavery Commission’s objective?

Answer 33

The Slavery Commission – aimed to stamp out slavery, slave dealing and practices such as forcing women and children into prostitution. Successes included the freeing of 200,000 slaves in Sierra Leone and the reduction of the death rate for African workers on the Tanganyikan railway from 50% to 4%. Iraq, Jordan and Nepal abolished slavery altogether. However, success was not universal and ‘white slave’ traffic has continued to be a serious social problem.

Question 34

34. Was the Disarmament Commission a success? Explain your answer.

Answer 34

The Disarmament Commission – Article 8 of the League Covenant had called on all nations to disarm ‘to the lowest point consistent with national safety’. However, by the end of the 1920s only the defeated powers disarmed – and that was because they were forced to. A minor success was organising the 1921 Washington Naval Conference. This led to agreement on naval limitation by the USA, Britain, France and Japan.

Question 35

35. Explain two successes of peacekeeping during the 1920’s.

Answer 35

• Aaland Islands, 1921 – these islands in the Baltic Sea were claimed by both Sweden and Finland. Most of the islanders wanted to be ruled by Sweden. The League investigated and awarded the islands to Finland but with safeguards for the islanders including demilitarisation. Sweden accepted the judgment.
• Upper Silesia, 1921 – this valuable industrial area was on the border between Germany and Poland. It was granted to Poland in a the draft Treaty of Versailles but following German protests it was agreed to hold a plebiscite. The overall result suggested it should be awarded to Germany but in some rural parts there was a clear majority in favour of Poland. Following riots and protests the League proposed a partition which both sides accepted: Eastern Upper Silesia went to Poland; Western Upper Silesia to Germany.
• Mosul, 1924 – in 1924 Turkey claimed this Kurdish-populated province of British-mandated Iraq. The league investigated and made an award in favour of Iraq. Turkey accepted the judgment.
Aaland Islands, 1921 – these islands in the Baltic Sea were claimed by both Sweden and Finland. Most of the islanders wanted to be ruled by Sweden. The League investigated and awarded the islands to Finland but with safeguards for the islanders including demilitarisation. Sweden accepted the judgment.

Question 36

36. Explain two failures in peacekeeping during the 1920’s.

Answer 36

Vilna, 1920 –
this city with a largely Polish population was made capital of the newly created state of Lithuania. A Polish army seized the city in 1920. Lithuania appealed to the League. The League asked Polish troops to withdraw while a plebiscite was arranged. Poland refused. The matter was passed to the Conference of Ambassadors who awarded Vilna to Poland.

• Occupation of the Ruhr, 1923 –
when Germany defaulted on its reparations repayment in 1922 the matter should have been referred to the League. Instead, France and Belgium ordered troops to occupy the Ruhr in January 1923. This seemed to confirm the impression that the League was little more than a victors’ club for the pursuit of victors’ interests.

• Corfu Incident, 1923 –
In August 1923 Italian Prime Minister Mussolini ordered the naval bombardment and occupation of the Greek island of Corfu in response to the murder of an Italian general and some of his staff who had been patrolling part of the border frontier between Greece and Albania. The murders had taken place on Greek soil. Mussolini had demanded 50 million lira compensation and the execution of the assassins but Greece had been unable to locate the culprits.

Question 37

37. What happened in October 1929?

Answer 37

In October 1929 the Wall St Crash marked the beginning of a worldwide economic recession.

Question 38

38. How did this affect the world?

Answer 38

World wide economic recession. There was a dramatic contraction in production and trade and a steep rise in unemployment over the next three years. Every country was affected, especially the USA and Germany, where unemployment peaked at 6 million – approximately one third of the workforce

Question 39

39. Describe three reasons why the Depression made the work of the League much more difficult.

Answer 39

• Reduced inclination of League members to impose economic sanctions as all countries were desperate to maintain their existing trade contacts
• Extremists coming to power in Germany – the Nazis had been a fringe party with less than 3% support before the Depression but they picked up support during it
• Encouraged militarism in Japan – the Japanese army realised Japan’s survival depended on overseas trade. In 1931 they decided to take the law into their own hands (see below)
• Governments were under pressure to balance the books. Serious rearmament was delayed so League members lacked the military means to deal with aggressors
• Countries became under pressure to find new markets and sources of raw materials. One way this could be done was through colonisation or the annexatio

Question 40

40. Describe how successful the 1930’s was for the League.

Answer 40

Agencies, committees and commissions continued good work. The Saar Commission, for example, successfully organised the plebiscite which led to the return of the region to Germany in January 1935.

Question 41

41. Where was Manchuria?

Answer 41

Manchuria was a province of north-east China with part of its southern frontier bordering Korea.

Question 42

42. What was the Japanese connection to Manchuria?

Answer 42

Since 1905 the Japanese had been in control in Korea, with trading rights extending into Manchuria. Japanese guards were permitted along the route of the South Manchurian Railway to maintain order in a chaotic area and protect Japanese business interests.
Japan was very badly affected by the Depression. Japan depended on imports to feed its rapidly growing population. These had to be paid for with exports

Question 43

43. Japan faced many problems. What were they and how was Manchuria the answer to these problems?

Answer 43

Manchuria seemed to offer the answer to Japan’s problems: it could provide a source of food and raw materials, a market for Japanese exports and land for the surplus Japanese population.

Question 44

44. What did Japan do that made China appeal to the league?

Answer 44

In September 1931 Japanese soldiers staged an incident on the South Manchurian railway at Mukden and used the excuse of Chinese banditry to launch an invasion of the local area. China appealed to the League.

Question 45

45. What happened after China appealed to the league?

Answer 45

The Japanese government promised to withdraw, but it soon became clear that the civilian government was no longer in control of events. The Japanese army proceeded to occupy the whole area.

Question 46

46. What was Manchuria renamed as?

Answer 46

In March 1932 Manchuria was renamed Manchukuo

Question 47

47. The League could have called for sanctions but failed to do so. Why?

Answer 47

• None of the European powers wanted to reduce their trade with the Far East and let US firms take over lost business
• Military sanctions would have involved sending a naval task force to the other side of the world with uncertain prospects of success
• Britain and France feared sanctions against Japan might provoke attacks on their colonies in the Far East which included Hong Kong and Singapore

Question 48

48. What was Lord Lytton hired to do?

Answer 48

So the League appointed Lord Lytton to lead a commission of enquiry to Manchuria.

Question 49

49. What did he decide and what were the consequences of this decision?

Answer 49

Together with a four-man team, including a representative from the US, Lytton spent six weeks in the province and concluded that although the Japanese were provoked by the Chinese, the invasion was not justified.
he Lytton Report was considered by the League Assembly in February 1933. The findings were accepted by a vote of 42 to 1. Japan’s response was to leave the League.

Question 50

50. Did the League respond quickly enough?

Answer 50

The League had not acted quickly enough. By the time Lytton arrived in the Far East in April 1932 the invasion was a fait accompli and the Japanese were strengthening their control in Manchuria. The Assembly finally voted 18 months after the original Japanese action.

Question 51

51. Why did the World Disarmament Conference fail?

Answer 51

The arms race and in particular the naval arms race between Britain and Germany was considered to have been a cause of WW1. After 1918 disarmament was considered to be vital to promoting world peace.

Question 52

52. Where is Abyssinia?

Answer 52

Abyssinia was the last independent state in Africa.

Question 53

53. Why were the Italians set upon revenge?

Answer 53

In 1896 an Italian army had been humiliatingly defeated at Adowa in northern Abyssinia in a failed attempt to colonise the country. Ever since then Italians had been set upon revenge.

Question 54

54. Why did Mussolini want a war with Abyssinia?

Answer 54

Mussolini was looking for ways to boost his popularity. War with Abyssinia looked like a low-risk way of achieving this.

Question 55

55. What happened at Wal-Wal?

Answer 55

Following a border incident at Wal Wal in December 1934 Mussolini began a build-up of Italian forces in Eritrea and Somaliland.

Question 56

56. Why and how did the League react to this invasion?

Answer 56

The invasion was a clear example of unprovoked aggression. The League condemned it and imposed economic sanctions. For a while it seemed strong and resolute. But it soon became clear economic sanctions were having little impact

Question 57

57. Why did these economic sanctions have no impact?

Answer 57

• Essential war materials such as oil and coal were not included in the list of banned goods to trade
• The Suez Canal, Italy’s main link to Africa, was kept open for fear of possible Italian naval attacks on the British colonies Gibraltar and Malta

Question 58

58. What was the Hoare-Laval Pact?

Answer 58

In December 1935 the British and French governments drew up a secret deal – the Hoare-Laval Pact. Italy would receive two-thirds of Abyssinia in return for stopping the war. The remaining mountainous area of Abyssinia would be compensated by being given a narrow strip of territory to provide access to the sea through Italian Eritrea.

Question 59

59. Why did this pact fail?

Answer 59

Mussolini indicated that he would accept this deal, but news of it leaked to the French press. In a storm of public protest the plan was abandoned and foreign ministers Hoare and Laval resigned.

Question 60

60. Why was Abyssinia an example of the League failing?

Answer 60

The League had failed to give effective help to Abyssinia. During the crisis Britain and France had been pursuing contradictory objectives. On the one hand they felt duty-bound to support the League, but on the other they were fearful of offending Italy in case it made Italy become an ally of Germany. This latter motive became dominant as Germany was increasingly feared.

Question 61

61. What role did the League play in 1938?

Answer 61

The League played little or no part in the diplomacy leading up to the Anschluss between Germany and Austria in March 1938. It wasn’t consulted over the Sudetenland Crisis and Munich Conference of September 1938. Britain and France realised the only way to check Germany was to re-arm and seek military allies.

Question 62

62. Describe how parts of the League were eventually transferred to the United Nations.

Answer 62

In the 1930s three of the permanent members of the Council – Japan, Italy and Germany had left the League. Soviet Russia was expelled for invading Finland in November 1939. Following the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 there were no further meetings of the league until April 1946 when it was wound up and its assets transferred to the newly formed United Nations.

Question 63

63. How effective do you think the League of Nations was overall?

Answer 63

Although the League had failed on the whole, elements of the League such as the Permanent Court of International Justice and the International Labour Organisation were built into the UN. The UN also had a similar structure in the form of an assembly and council. The central ideas of collective security and working together to solve the world’s social and economic problems lived on.