Chapter 3:The Neonatal Phase And Infancy

Question 1

What is the neonatal phase

Answer 1

Refers to the period between birth and when the baby is 4 weeks old.

Unappealing physical characteristics
Physical well being assessed with apgar scale for quantitative evaluation of certain critical physical characteristics. Is assesses body colour heartbeat reflex irritability muscle tone and breathing.
Apgar( appearance, pulse,gramice, activity, respiration).

Question 2

What adjustment to life processes are needed for newborns

Answer 2

Blood circulation: aeration- provision of oxygen on their own
Respiration: obtain O2 themselves and expalsion of CO2. Anoxia: O2 shortage.
Digestion: includes digesting nutrients and excreting waste.
Body temperature: develop fatty layer.
The nervous system: reflexes important for survival.
Immunity: formation of antibodies against infection.

Question 3

Discuss the perception skills of newborns

Answer 3

Vision: visual acuity- ability to distinguish between closely related elements in visual field. Can recognise faces relatively early on

Hearing: able to distinguish certain sounds.

Smell: can recognise and distinguish smells.

Taste: distinguish strong flavour.

Pain: physiological response eg heart rate and behavioural response are indicative of pain.

Question 4

Explain sleep and dreaming in newborns

Answer 4

Neonates sleep between 17-20 hours a day.
REM (rapid eye movement) and NREM( non rapid eye movement)
REM associated with dreaming and detected by means off EEG. Neonates spend about half of sleeping time in rem sleep.

Question 5

Discuss the feeding of neonates

Answer 5

Advantages of breastfeeding:
Antibodies in milk provide Vital protection against various diseases.

Nutrients in mom’s milk stimulate brain growth and myelination of axons.

Breast milk easily digested by the baby.

Breast fed neonates gain less weight and less likely to become overweight.

Sucking mom’s nipple helps avoid malocclusion and prevent tooth decay

Question 6

How is neonatal learning considered

Answer 6

Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Imitation

Question 7

Discuss what occurs during infancy

Answer 7

Lasts for neonatal phase to about 2nd year of life characterized by rapid growth and development.
Critical stage because foundation for various behavioural patterns is laid during this period.
Dangerous because fatal accident often occurs as baby inability to foresee consequences of behaviour.
Challenging because of increasing drive towards independence.

Question 8

Discuss the stages of cognitive development based on Jean Piaget Theory

Answer 8

The sensorimotor stage:
Refers to infants who obtain their info through sensory input and motor activity. They gradually develope ability to co ordinate info. This occurs across 6 sub stages which represents a definite advance over previous one.

Cognitive development occurs through circular reaction where infant learn to repeat pleasurable or interesting situations discovered by chance. The repetition becomes a cycle in which cause and effect influence each other.

Substage 1: reflexes 
Substage 2: primary circular reaction
Substage 3: secondary circular reaction
Substage 4: coordination of secondary reactions
Substage 5: tertiary circular reaction
Substage 6: mental representation

Question 9

Explore the cognitive skills of the sensorimotor stage

Answer 9

Object permanence: refers to the understanding that objects continue to exist when they can’t be seen anymore. Between 8-12 months infants start to grasp this concept. They do undergo the A-not-B error called perseverating search.

Imitation which is the ability to copy someone else’s behaviour. Infant are able to form a mental image of something perceived

Deferred imitation: refers to infants ability to imitate behaviour after they have been exposed to it. Developed from increasing ability to form mental picture of behaviour performed by other person.

Question 10

Critically evaluate Piaget’s view on cognitive development of infants

Answer 10

Piaget’s sample was too small and not broadly representative.

Methods were to simplistic.

Measurements of brain activity wasn’t available.

Question 11

Describe the process of information processing for infants

Answer 11

Habituation which occurs when babies are exposed to the same stimulus repeatedly and gradually start showing less interest in it. In babies is determined by introducing stimulus followed by measurements of the infant’s heart rate sucking behaviour eye movement and brain activity.

Dishabituation occurs when a new stimulus appears and they starting paying attention to it.

Visual preference refers to infants tendencies to spend more time looking at one object rather than another

Visual recognition refers to the ability to discrimate between a familiar and unfamiliar object.

Auditory discrimaton refers to ability to differentiate between sounds

Question 12

Discuss memory in infants

Answer 12

Memory refers to the acquisition storing and retrieving of info which is an important aspect of our daily functioning.

Caterogised in terms of time frame in which memories are retained.

Short term memory: refers to temporary storage of immediate info and includes working memory which is involved in aspects of learning. This memory is limited in storage

Long term memory: refers to the permanent or semi permanent storage of episodic semantic and procedural memory.

Episodic memory refers to memories of events.
Semantic memory refers to memory for facts and general knowledge.
Procedural memory refers to ones memory of how to do things and includes procedures for perceptual motor and cognitive activities

Implicit memory refers to memories of which one isn’t conscious of but influence ones daily functioning.
Explicit memory signifies knowledge acquired through conscious effort.

Infants their recognition and recall memory is tested.

Question 13

Evaluate language development in infants

Answer 13

Phases of development

Receptive language ( understanding) precedes productive language ( speaking it) this means babies understand language before they are able to speak it.

Question 14

Explain prelinguistic speech and it’s phases.

Answer 14

Undifferentiated crying (birth-1month) babies use crying as a signal of their needs. Crying is termed undifferentiated because the listener is unable to distinguish whether babies are crying because they are hungry thirsty frightened uncomfortable or in pain.

Differentiated crying (from 2 months) crying distinguishable by parents where babies use various sound patterns and pitches to indicate their different needs.

Cooing and babbling (2months- 5months) cooing refers to squealing gurgling sounds made to express happiness satisfaction or excitement. Babbling refers to simple repetition of sounds

Lallation (7-8 months) means babies repeat sounds and words they have heard.

Echolali (9-10 months) repetition of words or sounds are more correct and deliberate.

Single word sentences(1year) baby begin to speak intelligible words deliberately to communicate with others.

Full sentences: (21months) develop in 5 phases ranging from 2word to sentences increasing in sophisticated language structure.

Babies as young as 9months possess elementary receptive vocabulary. Undergo vocabulary spurt

Question 15

Comment on the various theories of language development

Answer 15

Learning theory:
+Operant conditioning B.F Skinner gestures and sounds are reinforced. If words associated with strong emotions more likely to be retained.

+Imitation where children learn Language by imitating the speech of adults. Parents act as model but also expand on what child says.

Learning theorist maintain that parents are regarded as expert instructors. Multiple repetition is important. Babies who are linguistically stimulated become well spoken later.

Question 16

Discuss the social pragmatism

Answer 16

Pragmatism refers to the practical use of something. Social impulses and not explicit learning is involved in the learning of language.

The emotional messages of language and not only the words are important in early language development.

Early conversation between child and parent are important because it indicates that children not only acquire language to solve problems or expressing themselves but to engage in social interaction to. a reciprocal socialisation occurs between parents and children. this pitch variation helps to connect emotions to words.
Conversations include reciprocal activities when actions linked to vocalisations.

Question 17

Describe the nativist approach

Answer 17

According to nativism every person is born with the ability to acquire language. They acknowledge the role played by learning process but considered innate ability.

Chomsky contribution was the languages acquisition device which is a constellation of interconnecting brain areas present in human species.

Present at birth but dependant on maturation of cells in cerebral cortex which is responsible for fact people can produce and understand infinite number of sentences.

Lenneberg was known for his idea that sensitive or optimal period which a language is acquired easily and more quickly. He sees years before puberty as sensitivity period

Question 18

What is the integrated approach to language development

Answer 18

Learning theory seems to offer best explanation of how sounds words and meanings are learnt.

Social pragmatism explain enhancement of social interaction

Nativism provides possibly better explanation of the creative aspects of language ability.

Children born with innate ability to learn language and learning and experience activate and reinforce this ability.

Question 19

Define personality and theories thereof

Answer 19

Personality refers to the unique and relatively consistent way in which an individual feels thinks and behaves.

Personality may described using big 5 theory Openness conscientiousness extroversion agreeableness neuroticism

The biological perspective believe genetic and physiological patterns underlies many traits we regard as personality.

The learning perspective emphasize reinforcement and modelling as basic shapers of personality as well as self efficacy

The psychodynamic perspective emphasize the role of parents in child’s personality development.

The ethological perspective believe first 2 years of life constitute sensitive period for development of attachment relationship essential for survival and emotional well being of child.

An integrated approach where acknowledging the interaction between biology and environment is most viable explanation for personality development

Question 20

How does personality develop during infancy

Answer 20

Emotional deprivation during infancy shows some kind of personality change as a result.

Baby’s world and experience are limited that the nature and quality of the environment affects emerging personality

Personality traits that are in an active phase of development may be adversely affected than other traits

Development of self concept starts during infancy with emerging of the self.

Question 21

What role do emotions play in personality development

Answer 21

Emotions have adaptational and protective functions. One is to communicate needs. A second function is to mobilise action in emergency. Thirdly is to promote exploration of the environment which leads to learning.

Question 22

Discuss the development of emotions in infants

Answer 22

Challenges of emotion observations in infants

• Emotional responsiveness isn’t clearly differentiated immediately after birth
• Emotional expression aren’t always indication of internal emotional experience but indication of physiological need
• Absence of Language

Biological explanation: believe emotions originate in genetics and are innate which have distinctive adaptive value.

Cognitive socialisation explanation: believe cognitive processes acts as mediators that bridge gap between environmental stimuli and emotions or response the child expresses. Socialisation plays a role in the manner in which emotions are expressed way they are managed as well as labeling and interpretation of emotion.

Contextual explanation: emphasis on positive or negative tone of emotion and intensity. View emotions as process embedded in social interaction.

Question 23

When do emotions appear

Answer 23

Basic emotions: such as indication of contentment, interest, distress appear soon after birth. They are diffuse, reflexive physiological response to sensory stimuli and internal processes. During 6 months emotional states differentiate into 6 basic emotions.

Emotions involving the self: self conscious emotions like embarrassment empathy and jealousy arise after children have developed self awareness which emerges between 15&24months

Self evaluative emotions: emotions like pride shame and guilt emerge around 3yrs

Emotions involving others: empathy emerges during 2nd year and increase with age.

Question 24

When and how are emotions expressed in infants

Answer 24

Infants are capable of producing facial expressions.

Earliest display of emotion are crying and smiling
Non selective social smile- response to familiar faces
Selective social smile-interaction with familiar person’s
Basic cry consists of vocalisations pause intake of air and pause
Angry cry: extra air forced through Vocal cords during vocalisations
Pain cry: long vocalisations following longer silence holding breathe then grasping.

Question 25

Explain the emotional communication between parents and child

Answer 25

Two way communication process such as smiling and crying which elicits patents reaction. In turn the parents emotional reactions influence baby’s emotional reactions.

2/3mnth baby respond to facial expressions of others.

Social referencing which occurs when baby activity seeks approval or disapproval for their actions from people they trust.

Question 26

How are emotions regulated in infants

Answer 26

Emotion regulation refers to strategies we use to adjust or change our emotional state to a comfortable level in order to accomplish certain goals.

Infants have a basic capacity to regulate their own emotions indicated by self soothing behaviour such as sucking or withdrawing from excessive stimulation.

Question 27

Discuss infants temperament

Answer 27

Temperament is the inherent and characteristic way in which a person reacts to stimuli and refers to that aspect of personality that has to do with feelings and expression thereof.

Dimensions of temperament: activity level rhythm distractibility approach or avoidance adaptibility attention span and persistence intensity of reaction responsiveness threshold and quality of mood.

Question 28

Discuss the self concept of infants

Answer 28

Consists of unique set of traits and characteristics an individual considers true about themselves.

Freud believed babies initially had no seperateness and symbiotic relationship exists between baby and mother

Piaget believed that sense of self develops around 12-18 months when object permanence developed.

Modern psychologist believe babies have elementary sense of seperateness from beginning and aren’t fused with their environment.

The self concept consists of subjective self: refering to the I that is inherent feelings of existence

Objective self: refers to individuals qualities that are known such as physical characteristics temperament and social skills.

Emotional self: refers to children ability to understand and regulate their own emotions.

Question 29

State which factors contribute towards the growing of self awareness

Answer 29

Self agency: infants recognise their own actions may result in predictable reactions of other people and objects. First sign is when baby cries or smiles and mom reacts accordingly. According to Bandura the basis of self efficacy is laid in 1st developmental year

The development of object permanence: and to differentiate between familiar and unfamiliar person’s and objects around 9-12.

Self recognition: between 18-30months children describe themselves Either neutral or evaluative.

Emotional self awareness: infants increasing understanding of own emotions and control thereof. As children internalise behaviour limitations and accompanying regulatory rules begin to use own impulse or inhibitory control. Develop further between 15-24months.

Self awareness develop as result of cognitive maturation and self exploration implying infants behaviour starts to change.

Question 30

What is social development and the aspects thereof

Answer 30

Social development refers to individuals relationship with others.

Attachment: refers to emotional bonding that takes place between individuals.

Psychoanalyst Freud and Rene Spitz believed that infant becomes attached to person who provide oral satisfaction.

Harlow believed that physiological needs don’t play a significant role in development of attachment. The provision of Comfort warmth and softness is of vital importance.

Erik Erikson believed that 1st year of life where trust Vs mistrust is the key period on which attachment is formed. A sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort and minimal fear and apprehension.

Question 31

Explain the development of attachment

Answer 31

Bowlby theory of attachment emphasize the importance of the formation of attachment with a primary caregiver and security that develop from it. Attachment isn’t automatically present but develops gradually.

The pre attachment phase( indiscriminate responsiveness to humans) lasting 1-3months where behaviour is characterized by genetically determined reflex responses.

The attachment in the making phase( focusing on familiar people) lasts from 3-6months characterised by different reactions to familiar and unfamiliar persons.

The phase of Clear cut attachment (active proximity seeking) 6m-2yrs where baby is Mobile

Formation of reciprocal relationship ( partnership behaviour) due to development of cognitive social and emotional behaviour attachment is more complex.

Question 32

State the types of attachment

Answer 32

Secure attachment:
Mother is security base where they explore their world. Anxious when mom is absent and content when present

Avoidant attachment:
Baby not anxious by absence of mom. No attempt to explore environment not upset or concerned by presence of strangers

Ambivalent attachment:
Babies get anxious before mom leaves and extremely upset. When returns reaches for mom but also cries. Wary of strangers

Disorganised attachment:
Reflected insecurity and likely to occur when mom is insensitive or abusive. Show confused contradictory behaviour

Question 33

What are the factors influencing attachment?

Answer 33

Attachment seeking behaviour-crying sucking smiling clinging usually lead to response from caregiver and are successful when mom responds warmly and provides regular physical contact.

The mother’s personality and relationship with baby plays big role in formation of attachment relationship babies who show positive attachment are friendlier more supportive helpful affectionate and playful. Babies of mothers who are responsive and sensitive to their babies needs are inclined to have stronger attachment bonds with mother’s than babies of mothers who are insensitive or unresponsive.

The temperament of infant: if baby is difficult this may have such an negative effect on mom that development of attachment will be adversely affected. Goodness of fit between baby temperament and parents personality can play a role.

A working mom: a healthy support structure can help negate effects of working moms. If mom lacks support it can have harmful consequences on child.

Psychosocial factors like unhappy marriage social adversity trauma can be responsible for unsatisfactory attachment between mother and child. These factors require lots of attention and can lead to unresponsiveness insensitivity and dimished ability to help baby with emotional regulation.

Mental problems eg Post partum depression can be related to problems with mom child relationship.

Question 34

What are the long term effects of attachment

Answer 34

The stronger the baby attachment to mom the easier it’s for child to be seperated from her. This security enables them to try new things tackle problem and have positive attitude towards unknown

Attachment bonds affect social emotional cognitive competence. Securely attached infants are more likely to obey mom have greater vocab more sociable and positive interactions.

Insecure infants have more negative feelings while secure are more positive at 4-5 more inquisitive and responsive to playmates at 11 have better social skills.

Question 35

What is the role of the father

Answer 35

Father’s can play same role as the mom.
Father’s engage more in play activity. Young adults whose father’s were sensitive in early interaction exhibit secure model of attachment in later relationship.

Question 36

What is the role of other caregivers

Answer 36

Allo parenting refers to a social system in which other members of society help to support children who aren’t their own.

Question 37

What is stranger anxiety

Answer 37

Refers to fear that babies show in presence of strangers like crying when picked up by stranger. Usually occurs during second half of first year.

#occurs frequently when mom isn't present and least when mom holds baby
#if given time to get used to strangers more likely anxiety will lessen
#babies respond better to child stranger than adults
#securely attached babies experience less 
#cared by many diff caregivers experience less

Question 38

What are the different viewpoints regarding stranger anxiety

Answer 38

Cognitive: baby realises stranger face is different fr family and leads to incongruity

Behavioural: familiar faces elicit familiar response but when unable to associate new image with familiar one unable to respond correct and increase tension

Contingency: exposure to stranger results in unpredictable interaction.

Evolutionary: regards as part of universal behavioural system. Will keep baby away from unknown and protected.

Question 39

What is seperation anxiety

Answer 39

Refers to fear and accompanying behavior demonstrated when mom or caregiver leaves for short time them which usually occurs from 8-12 months.

Familiar and unfamiliar environment influences reaction.

Question 40

What is socialisation

Answer 40

Process where by the child learns to conform to the moral standards role expectations and requirements for acceptable behaviour for the particular community and culture.

socialisation during infancy is mainly aimed at the elimination of undesirable behaviour and learning of desirable behaviour.

Question 41

How do parents influence childs socialisation?

Answer 41

• Parents socialise their children through direct teaching like how to eat and dress.
• Parents act as important role models through interaction with child.
• Parents control certain aspects of childs social life that can influence their social development like the neighbourhood in which they live and the visiting of friends.

Question 42

What techniques do parents use in socialising their children

Answer 42

> Positive reinforcement: includes rewarding children with hugs smiles for correct behaviour.
Induction: includes reasoning explaining and setting limits for child
Scaffolding: refers to parental support of childs efforts allowing them to be skilful than they would be if relying only on own abilities.
Power assertion: includes physical punishment forceful commands and removal of objects and privileges
Love withdrawal: Parent ignores the child or reacts coldly toward their behaviour.

Question 43

How does peer interactions affect childs socialisation

Answer 43

A peer is referred to companion that is of a similar age and developmental level.
During such interactions children acquire skills like compromising competing and co operating. aids childs development of self by giving feedback regarding academic social and emotional proficiency.