Chapter 3: Foreign Policy

Question 1

What were the key issues key w/Henry’s foreign policy ?

Answer 1

• Englands relations w/foreign powers were closely tied to developments in Europe, particularly the case concerning marriage
• FP initially dictated by issues related to his succession (priority was to gain acceptance of his right to rule) + his lack of money
• 1485-92: series of truces built w/France (1485), Scotland (1486) & Hapsburg Empire (1487)- advantage seen of building long term alliance w/Spain (as an insurance policy against France)
• later FP focused on trade, dynastic expansion + own succession

Question 2

What were Henry’s key FP objectives ?

Answer 2

• national security
• recognition of the Tudor Dynasty
• defence of English trading interests

Question 3

Who’s who in Europe (France) ?

Answer 3

• ruled by Charles VIII of Valois family
• strongest power in Europe ➡️ Europes events orbited around France
• annexed Brittany, Burgundy + Navarre
• involved in various European conflicts
• 🔔 threat to England ➡️ major military (biggest army in Europe) + financially strong + history of war with England

Question 4

Who’s who in Europe (Burgundy) ?

Answer 4

• passed to Hapsburg’s in 1477
• focus of the Hapsburg-Valois conflicts (modern Belgium + Netherlands)
• provides backing for Yorkist pretenders (Margret)

Question 5

Who’s who in Europe (Italy + Papal states) ?

Answer 5

• focus of wealth + trade in Europe
• the big prize: geographically + commercially at the cross roads of Europe
• experiencing a cultural revolution, the Renaissance
• Florence, Milan, Venice = key states
• Italian wars distract other countries from England

Question 6

Who’s who in Europe (Spain) ?

Answer 6

• Ferdinand of Aragon + Isabella of Castile married in 1469 (joint monarchs)
• for a time a stable country however fought wars to expand territory against Muslims + French
• wanted to drive moors (muslims) out
• wanted to retake Cerdgare and Roussillon (from France)

Question 7

Who’s who in Europe (Holy Roman Empire) ?

Answer 7

• loose federation of German, Italian & French speaking countries
• stretched over much of central Europe (20 million inhabitants)
• ruled by Emperor Maximilian
• large + strong: increased power through marriage of Maximilian + Margret of Burgundy
• Hapsburg Dynasty = largest part
• various Hapsburg + Valois conflicts

Question 8

What was the Breton Crisis ?

Answer 8

• France wanted to gain power by taking Brittany (largest remaining semi-independent dutchy)
• troubled/scared Europe as would significantly increase power + strategic capabilities of the already mighty France

Question 9

Who was involved in the Breton crisis ?

Answer 9

• Maximilian & Ferdinand of Spain both attempt to intervene to prevent the French taking control (sent troops)

Question 10

Why did the Breton crisis happen ?

Answer 10

• the Duke of Brittany (Francis II), was too old to secure the independence of the duchy + had no male heirs - French could easily capture & take control (gain territory)

Question 11

How did Henry respond to the Breton crisis ?

Answer 11

• allowed unofficial intervention of English soldiers + issued san apology to France
• this was a good response as Henry couldn’t be blamed which prevented war

Question 12

When did the french first send troops to Brittany and what was Europes response ?

Answer 12

• 1487 French sent troops into Brittany
• in response both Maximilian + Ferdinand of Spain sent troops into Brittany to prevent French takeover

Question 13

Why was Henry initially hesitant to send troops to Brittany ?

Answer 13

• Henry didn’t want to start a war w/France: the cost of war would be a great strain on his finances (lacked funds) + didn’t want to annoy France when pretenders were active
• however H felt like he owed the Duke of Brittany a debt of gratitude for sheltering him from the Yorkists + French control of Brittany would increase their potential to invade England

Question 14

What was the Treaty of Redon ?

Answer 14

• treaty w/Brittany in Feb 1489
• H agreed to send 6000 troops (actually only sent 3000) which Anne of Brittany pledged to pay for + agreed to not form alliances or marry w/o Henry’s permission

Question 15

What was the Treaty of Dordrecht (after Treaty of Redon) ?

Answer 15

• treaty w/Maximilian in Feb 1489
• H agreed to send 3000 troops to help his fight against his fight w/French
• but Maximilian didn’t honour his side of the bargain (to provide troops to help save Brittany’s independence) and instead made peace w/Charles VIII in July

Question 16

What was the treaty of Medina del Campo ?

Answer 16

• treaty w/Spain March 1489
• Henry and Spain agreed to go to war against France to recover lost territories (Normandy + Aquitaine)
• alliance was cemented by arrangement to marry H’s son Author to Catherine of Aragon (equal trading rights + short/long term- Author then Henry)

Question 17

What were Henry’s worries w/going to war w/France ?

Answer 17

• Henry stressed to France that he was only acting in defence of Brittany and had no desire to go further (at the time they received Warbeck at court)

Question 18

What happened in Jan 1491 and in 1492?

Answer 18

• Maximilian married Anne of Brittany, situation deteriorated when the French attacked again & Anne was forced to marry Charles VIII in Dec 1491
• H launched an invasion of France in 1492 and the French quickly sought a peace settlement (H showed his flexibility in his approach to benefit from the changes in the French priorities- more focus on launching invasion of Italy= skilful)

Question 19

What was the treaty of Etaples ?

Answer 19

• treaty w/France ? in 1492
• H’s army left France in return for a payment of 745,000 crowns to cover the costs of the expedition + an agreement not to support the kings enemies (important regarding Warbeck)

Question 20

Why was the Bretton crisis so significant ?

Answer 20

• it was the major FP consideration of H’s reign & the only time he committed troop outside the British Isles - he pursued a difficult diplomatic path w/skill
• Englands basic friendship w/France remained intact
• military intervention was brief + didn’t damage England reputation + cost of conflict was offset
• France also agreed not to support pretenders to the throne
• whilst H failed to restore English glories in Europe, he had managed to defend national & dynastic interests in the Breton Crisis
• can be argued the military intervention established England in the European context (one of H’s aims (recognition))

Question 21

What were the Italian Wars ?

Answer 21

-1494-1505
- the whole focus of European attention shifted w/Frances invasion of Italy in 1494

Question 22

Why did the Italian wars benefit Henry ?

Answer 22

• in 1490’s H’s main concern + focus was the threat of Warbeck, the wars offered a distraction to H’s rivals who may have taken more of an interest in Warbeck, increasing his threat (H was pushed to the side of politics)
• so was in H’s best interest for the war to continue
• the Holy Roman Empire encouraged H to join alliances against France, however an attack on France would be costly & possible to put England in danger (french retaliation)

Question 23

Conclusion of the Italian Wars

Answer 23

• Henry’s disinterest gave him room for manoeuvre & conflict continued in Italy up to the end of H’s reign
• his lack of interest in the wars can highlight how Henry had greater priorities eg.national security (gave him some respite)

Question 24

What was the Castilian Crisis ?

Answer 24

• 1504-1506
• H’s FP was very much linked to Spain since the marriage of Author & Catherine of Aragon
• the death of Isabella of Castile:
• the Anti-French alliance of Netherlands, Spain & England almost broke
• her will stated that her eldest daughter Joanna would inherit the larger territory of Castile (leaving her husband, Ferdinand, to return to Aragon)
• Joanna married Archduke Phillip (ruler of Burgundy + the heir to the Holy Roman Empire- also was Ferdinand’s enemy) meaning Castile was soon to be absorbed into the Hapsburg Empire- not supported by Ferdinand
• Ferdinand knew he had lost his Hapsburg alliance & was soon to be isolated so made an alliance w/France (the Treaty of Blois 1505) to avoid this

Question 25

W

Question 26

Castillian crisis conclusion ?

Answer 26

• Philip’s unexpected death left Henry isolated in Europe, HOWEVER, European events favoured him
• Louis XII, Ferdinand and Maximillian joined together to attack Venice (League of Cambria 1508) and whilst Henry was excluded from the agreement it allowed the ailing Henry some respite

Question 27

What was Englands relations with Burgundy/the Netherlands/HRE like ?

Answer 27

• bulk of Englands exports went through dutch ports eg. Antwerp and Bruges (came under Burgundy’s jurisdiction) ➡️ important for commercial reasons for good relations to be maintained
• COMPLICATING FACTOR WAS THE presence of Margret of Burgundy (sister of Edward IV and Richard III + leading up holder of Yorkist cause) ➡️ enlisted support of Maximillian (her stepson in law) who became HR emperor in 1493 and passed over jurisdiction in the Netherlands to 16 year old son Phillip the following year

Question 28

Why did relations with Burgundy/Netherlands/HRE deteriorate ?

Answer 28

• relations deteriorated as a result of the hospitality Maximillian and Phillip were offering to Perkin Warbeck
• Henry gambled and put an embargo on English trade with Burgundy (bringing two of his FP objectives-dynastic security vs. trade into conflict with each other) ➡️ sacrificed commercial interest of London and the east coast merchants = lost popularity

Question 29

How did relations with Burgundy/Netherlands/HRE improve ?

Answer 29

• improved to an extent when the trade embargo appeared to have secured the expulsion of Warbeck from Burgundy + Henry and Phillip able to agree to ❗️Intercusus Magnus (1496) which brought the trade embargo to an end ➡️ would be the major commercial treaty between England and the Duchy of Burgundy and restored normal trading links between the two nations

Question 30

How did the Treaty of Windsor help Englands relations ?

Answer 30

• Treaty of Windsor (outcome of Castillian crisis) ensured a new trade agreement,❗️ Intercursus Malus 1506 ➡️ reflected Henry’s position of strength at the time + would have gave England a much stronger trading position
• also incl. handing over the Earl of Suffolk, who H then imprisoned in the Tower of London (had more secure claim to the throne than Henry himself)
• HOWEVER treaty never fully operative and by following year relations had been restored on the basis of the ❗️Intercursus Magnus

Question 31

Burgundy/Netherlands/HRE relations conclusion ?

Answer 31

• Henry appeared to have improved the security of the dynasty and ensured positive trading relations with Burgundy

Question 32

How were relations between England and Scotland at the beginning of HVII’s reign ?

Answer 32

• H quickly arranged a truce with Scotland in 1486 w/James III + relations began to improve under James III until he was killed by Scottish nobles
• nobles who governed on behalf of James IV were hostile to England
• marriage of Margret to James IV was seen as a means to weaken the Auld Alliance which threatened England (invasion on two fronts) ➡️🔔 short term achievement

Question 33

How were Anglo-Scottish relations made worse between 149? and 1497 ?

Answer 33

• when James IV himself showed willingness to shelter Perkin Warbeck when he arrived in Scotland ➡️ given the royal welcome + military support for his failed invasion attempt in 1496
• this support threatened the security of the Tudor dynasty and presented a military + political threat ➡️ Henry met this challenge through mustering an army and through the Treaty of Ayton

Question 34

How did Anglo-Scottish relations begin to improve ?

Answer 34

• Warbecks move to Ireland July 1497 led to ❗️Treaty of Ayton (Sept 1497) ➡️ described how it brought a close to ‘perhaps the greatest crisis of his reign’ Steven Gunn
• ❗️Treaty of Perpetual peace signed in 1502 ➡️ the truce was extended + the marriage of Margret to James IV was finalised (took place in August 1503) ➡️ ill feeling between the two monarchs settled
• 🔔 HOWEVER, border raids + the Franco-Scottish alliance continued and James’ expansion of his navy stained relations in the final years of HVII’s reign

Question 35

Anglo-Scottish relations conclusion ?

Answer 35

• Henry had only stabilised, not secured the border regions, his son was still very much left to face the Scottish threat

Question 36

What were relations like between England and Ireland at the beginning of HVII’ reign ?

Answer 36

• Henry’s power in Ireland only extended to the Pale (area of land surrounding Dublin)
• power in the rest of Ireland lay with various Irish chieftains eg. Earl of Kildare (Lords Deputy of Ireland since 1477) and was feared by Henry bcs he had Yorkist sympathies ➡️ Kildare supported Simnel in 1486 (crowned him King of Ireland) and Warbeck in 1491

Question 37

How did Henry try to rule Ireland ?

Answer 37

• tried to to rule the Pale through an Englishman backed by armed forces, rather than relying on the cheaper but less reliable approach of relying on the Irish aristocracy ➡️ ❗️appointed his infant son Henry as Lieutenant of Ireland and Sir Edward Poynings a his deputy
• Poynings initially successful in establishing royal authority (through the threat of force and use if bribery)
• ❗️Irish Parliament passed ‘Poynings Law’ 1495 ➡️ laid down that the Irish Parliament could not pass any laws without the approval of the English Crown + also attempted to implement English law in Ireland
• strategy proved too expensive + when Warbeck returned to Ireland in 1495 and amassed a foce whoch besieged Waterford

Question 38

Why did HVII change strategies in Ireland ?

Answer 38

• Poyning’s strategy proved too expensive + when Warbeck returned to Ireland in 1495 (amassed a force which besieged Waterford) ➡️ H had to depend on the cheaper option of using Kildare as his deputy and Henry who was short of money bcs of the threat of invasions by the Scots, was forced to recall Poynings
• by 1496 an allainace of convenience formed between Kildare and Henry ➡️ Kildare realised there was no longer any benefit in supporting the Yorkist cause and so decided to serve Henry loyalty, in the process securing the submission of various Irish chieftains
• fact that Kildare was able to use his office to rebuild his family’s fortunes made him eager to support his former enemy

Question 39

Ireland conclusion ?

Answer 39

• Henry managed to nullify the support that the Earl of Kildare was giving to pretenders (Simnel and Warbeck) through his actions in Ireland ➡️ Henry wore down Kildare and secured the submission of Irish Chieftains (achieved through a variety of approaches incl. Poynings Law)
• 🔔 by around 1500 Henry had eventually secured some level of cheap and peaceable control over Ireland, he was undoubtedly fortunate that Kildare eventually proved so peaceable.

Question 40

Why were marriage alliances important ?

Answer 40

• marriage alliances were an essential part of European diplomacy ➡️ all monarchs sought marriage alliances in order to enhance their power and influence + for Henry it was important to seek appropriate marriage alliances to help bring about dynastic security

Question 41

How successful was Henry with marriage alliances ?

Answer 41

• Catherine of Aragon set to marry Prince Arthur (who suddenly died) ➡️ Henry quickly sought another marriage between Catherine and Prince Henry
• Princess Margaret (eldest daughter) married James IV of Scotland ➡️ strengthened alliances with Scotland + weakened Warbecks threat
• Princess Mary (younger daughter) would marry Louis XII (King of France), during HVIII’s reign, in order to secure peaceable relations between the two countries
• after the death of his wife Elizabeth, Henry would unsuccessfully try to re-enter the marriage market ➡️ possible alliances with Castile, Aragon, France and HRE were considered but came to nothing ➡️ partly because the princesses concerned proved reluctant to marry Henry and partly because Henry himself gradually lost enthusiasm for the prospect of remarriage

Question 42

How successful was Henry regarding the succession ?

Answer 42

• before 1502 appeared there would be no problems with the succession ➡️ death of Arthur in 1502 increased the insecurity of the dynasty
• new heir to the throne was the young Prince Henry, raised the issue of what might happen if the king himself were to die while Henry was still a child
• Henry’s health deteriorated rapidly and died on April 21st 1509 but his death not announced until 23rd of April ➡️ Bishop Fox and Richard Weston (member of Privy Council), aided and abetted by Lady Margaret Beaufort, sought to manipulate the terms of the succession and to position themselves around the new king and Empson and Dudley were excluded from their deliberations, the following day, they were arrested along with other suspected ‘troublemakers’
• 🔔conclusion: there was a clear message being sent ➡️ the new regime would be different from the old.

Question 43

FOREIGN POLICY CONCLUSION ?

Answer 43

• 🔔 Henry’s FP and relations with other countries were often by necessity defensive and reactive
• ❌ his FP was still largely led by international and domestic concerns
• ❌ Henry’s main FP’s were largely reliant on distractions made elsewhere in Europe ➡️ meaning that they were always going to be fragile and short term
• ✅ once he secured his dynasty, he became more ambitious and broadly successful in his FP + in the main avoided expensive foreign wars
• ✅❌ his FP not consistently successful ➡️ more than most monarchs, Henry was aware of the influence that luck (both good and bad) could play in diplomatic affairs eg. the death of Isabella of Castile in 1504 left him wrong footed and dangerously isolated for a time
• ✅❌ FP and the succession were inextricably linked ➡️ royal marriage proposals were a normal part of diplomatic activity (it was a game in which Henry had mixed fortunes)
• ✅ a key aim of Henry’s foreign policy was to increase trade although Henry was prepared to use embargo to secure the dynasty, trade and customs duties were successfully promoted through the ❗️Navigation Acts and support for developing markets
• ❌ possible to argue that Henry’s foreign policy was not successful, particularly in the later years following the death of Isabella and the failure to be included in the League of Cambrai
• ✅ on the whole, Henry responded skillfully to the changing circumstances in which he found himself