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anatomy and physiology exam 1 > chapter 3-cellular organization > Flashcards

chapter 3-cellular organization Flashcards

1
Q

cytology

A

study of cells

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2
Q

cytosol

A

fluid part of the cytoplasm

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3
Q

phospholipids

A

molecules that self-assemble into a bilayer to make up the majority of the plasma membrane

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4
Q

glycocalyx

A

-coating on the outside of the cell membrane
-functions for protection, anchoring, and recognition by the immune system

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5
Q

peripheral membrane proteins

A

adheres to only one side of the cell membrane

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6
Q

integral membrane proteins

A

span the whole width of the bilayer

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7
Q

osmotic lysis of a cell could occur in a strongly WHAT solution?

A

hypotonic

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8
Q

During phagocytosis, a cell reaches out with WHAT to grab onto a
large object and internalize it in a phagosome?

A

mircofillaments

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9
Q

transmembrane potential

A

-unequal charge distribution of positive on the outside and negative on the inside across the cell membrane
-ranges from -10 to -100mV

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10
Q

cisternae

A

membrane sacs of the endoplasmic reticulum

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11
Q

the Golgi functions to modify and sort proteins that are synthesized by the fixed
ribosomes on the WHAT ORGANELLE?

A

rough endoplasmic reticulum

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12
Q

three types of vesicles are produced at the trans face of the Golgi: secretory
vesicles, membrane renewal vesicles and WHAT?

A

lyosomes

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13
Q

peroxisomes

A

membrane sacs that contain oxidases and catalases to neutralize free radicals

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14
Q

proteins tagged with ubiquitin will be sent to the WHAT for recycling?

A

proteasome

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15
Q

cristae

A

inner folds of membrane in the mitochondria

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16
Q

aerobic cellular respiration

A

glucose is catabolized in the mitochondria into water and carbon dioxide in orderto create ATP

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17
Q

nucleolus

A

dense/dark spot in the nucleus where rRNA
synthesis is occurring

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18
Q

chromatin

A

loose open form of DNA

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19
Q

nucleosome

A

formed by DNA wound around histone proteins

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20
Q

in a gene, three bases of DNA make up a WHAT which is the instructions for one amino acid in the protein?

A

codon

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21
Q

transcription

A

process of making an RNA copy of a DNA gene

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22
Q

RNA polymerase binds to the WHAT on the template strand of DNA to begin the process of synthesizing RNA?

A

promoter

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23
Q

AUG

A

start codon for translation

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24
Q

if an mRNA has the codon CAU, the anticodon of the corresponding tRNA would
be WHAT?

A

GUA

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25
Q

why does translation stop at the stop codon?

A

no tRNA with anticodon to stop codon, no new amino acid arrives at ribosomes so the polypeptide chain is terminated

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26
Q

point mutation

A

-change in one base
-can be a silent mutation if the amino acid is not changed (common at the 3rd base in a codon)

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27
Q

apoptosis

A

the process of controlled cell death where lysosomes are neutralized

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28
Q

G1 phase

A

a cell duplicates its cytoplasm during interphase

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29
Q

During the S phase, DNA WHAT unwinds the DNA to allow copying of the information for replication?

A

helicase

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30
Q

DNA polymerase can add nucleotides only to the WHAT end of a growing DNA molecule

A

3’

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31
Q

DNA ligase functions to assemble the WHAT fragments into a
continuous lagging strand during DNA replication

A

okasaki

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32
Q

metaphase

A

the phase of mitosis where the chromosomes are lined up in the middle of the cell

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33
Q

the two sister chromatids are held together by a WHAT at the kinetochore?

A

centromere

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34
Q

cancer

A

caused by abnormal proliferation of cells due to mutations in oncogenes

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35
Q

how many cells does a human have?

A

~75 trillion cells & ~200 different types

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36
Q

sex cells

A

sperm and oocyte (eggs)- half of DNA (23)

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37
Q

somatic cells

A

-every other cell
-all contain full amounts of DNA
-unique morphology is related to function
-all cells surrounded by plasma membrane

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38
Q

cytoplasm

A

consists of cytosol (fluid) and organelles (structure)

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39
Q

interstitial fluid (outside membrane)

A

surrounds body cell

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40
Q

plasma/cell membrane

A

-phospholipids bilayer dynamic
-6 to 10 mm thick
-interface between cell and environment
-selective permeability of membrane allows
different conc. of molecules in/outside cells
-the inside surface is negatively charged due to the abundance of proteins
-outside surface is positively charged due to cations in extracellular fluids

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41
Q

functions of the plasma/cell membrane

A

-the physical barrier that maintains homeostasis
-regulates exchange with the environment
-provides sensitivity via receptors: cell communication
-provides structural support

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42
Q

phospholipids (membrane)

A

self assemble into bilayer

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43
Q

cholesterol (membrane)

A

resist osmotic lysis, stiffens

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44
Q

carbohydrates (membrane)

A

-linked to other molecules such as proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids
-The carb part protrudes from the extracellular side creating outer carb layer called glycocalyx

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45
Q

functions of glycocalyx

A

-lubrication & protection
-anchoring & locomotion
-binding specificity (receptor bind ligands)
-self recognition by immune system

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46
Q

proteins (membrane)

A

-1/2 mass of membrane
-contain integral & peripheral proteins

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47
Q

integral proteins

A

-most common
-span within membrane

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48
Q

peripheral proteins

A

adhere to inner/outer surface

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49
Q

anchoring proteins

A

attachment

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50
Q

recognition proteins

A

self-identification by the immune system (glycoproteins)

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51
Q

enzymes

A

catalyzer in cytosol or extra cellular fluid

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52
Q

receptors

A

-binds ligands for signaling or import/export
-ex: ions, nutrient molecules, hormones

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53
Q

carrier proteins

A

transport solutes in/out

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54
Q

channels

A

moves ions & H20 in/out

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55
Q

passive tranport

A

require no energy from the cell, rely on diffusion principles

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56
Q

active transport

A

requires a transport protein which uses energy from ATP to pump a particular substance against its diffusion gradient

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57
Q

simple diffusion

A

-net movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration across a diffusion gradient toward equilibrium
-transport of nonpolar & lipid soluble

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58
Q

rates of simple diffusion

A

-distance: shorter the distance, faster
-molecule size: smaller the molecule, faster
-temperature: hotter it is, faster
-gradient size: larger difference, faster
-electrical forces: opposite charge, faster

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59
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

-diffusion through a transporter substances
-rate of diffusion depends on the number of carrier molecules for the specific substance

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60
Q

carriers (facilitated diffusion)

A

proteins that bind a particular large or polar molecule

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61
Q

channels (facilitated diffusion)

A

proteins that act as selective pores for water or ions

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62
Q

leak channels

A

always open

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63
Q

gated channels

A

regulated

64
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of water through a semi permeable membrane

65
Q

osmolarity

A

solute concentration of a solution

66
Q

tonicity

A

how the solute concentration affects the shape of cell

67
Q

tonos

A

tension

68
Q

isotonic solutions

A

contain solute concentration equal to that of the cell, no net movement of water into or out of the cell, no osmotic pressure

69
Q

hypotonic solutions (crenation)

A

contain less solutes than the cell, net movement of water into the cell

70
Q

hypertonic solutions (lysis)

A

contain more solutes than the cell, net movement of water out of the cell

71
Q

vesicular transport

A

allows bulk of small molecules or internalization of large particles

72
Q

endocytosis

A

transport into the a cell via a vesicle

73
Q

exocytosis

A

transport out of a cell via a vesicle

74
Q

receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

membrane receptors bind substrate (ligand) and are internalized as an endosome to be fused with the lysosome
*specifically collected things from environment

75
Q

pinocytosis

A

“cell drinking” interstitial fluid is internalized as an endosome to be fused with the lysosomes
* random

76
Q

phagocytosis

A

“cell eating” large particles or cells are engulfed by pseudopods and internalized as a phagosome to be fused with the lyosomes

77
Q

pseudopods

A

a temporary growth on a cell that allows it to be mobile, almost like a little foot

78
Q

microvilli

A

ruffles and folds of cell membrane containing a web of microfilaments and cytoplasm, anchored to the cytoskeleton, corrugations maximize the surface of a cell

79
Q

cytoplasm

A

-enclosed by plasma membrane
-occupies space between the plasma membrane and nuclear membrane
-components are cytosol, inclusions, organelles

80
Q

cytosol

A

-fluid
-high K +, low Na +!
-colloid solution: proteins and enzymes
-nutrient reserves: carbohydrates, lipids,
-amino acids

81
Q

inclusions

A

-type and number vary with cell
-e.g. glycogen, melanin, steroids, etc.

82
Q

organelles

A

-carry out cellular functions
-each has separate functions
-some have membranes

83
Q

contact cytosol

A

organelles free in cytosol

84
Q

membranous organelles

A

-ER
-Golgi
-lysosomes
-peroxisomes
-mitohondria
-nucleus

85
Q

nonmembranous organelles

A

-cytoskeleton
-centrioles
-ribosomes
-proteasomes

86
Q

cytoskeleton

A

-internal framework
-organizes cell contents and functions
-4 possible types of filaments: microfilaments, intermediate, mircotubles, thick

87
Q

microfilament

A

~5nm diameter
-composed of actin protein
-usually at periphery of cell

88
Q

microfilament functions

A
  1. attach integral membrane proteins to the cytoskeleton to keep the membrane around the cytoplasm
  2. control the consistency of cytoplasm
  3. in muscle cells interact with myosin to produce movement
89
Q

intermediate filaments

A

~9-11nm
-the type varies with cell (e.g. collagen, elastin, keratin) all are insoluble and durable

90
Q

intermediate filament functions

A
  1. strengthen cells and maintain shape
  2. stabilize the position of organelles
  3. stabilize the cell relative to other cells
91
Q

microtubules

A

~25nm diameter
- hollow tubes composed of tubulin protein!
- originate from the centrosome
- very dynamic

92
Q

microtubule function

A
  1. forms main portions of the cytoskeleton, contributes to rigdity of cell and anchoring organelles
  2. allows the cell to change shape andassists in mobility
  3. involved in transport: molecular motors travel along microtubule “tracks”
  4. makes up the spindle apparatus for nuclear division (mitosis) !
  5. structural part of some organelles and cellular projections (centrioles, cilia, flagella)
93
Q

thick filaments

A
  • 15nm diameter
  • composed of myosin protein
  • muscle cells only!
94
Q

function of thick filaments

A

to interact with actin to produce movement

95
Q

centrosome

A

-located near the nucleus
-consists of dense cytoplasm & two centrioles arranged at right angles

96
Q

function of centrosome

A

-microtubule organizing center
-assembling spindle apparatus during mitosis

97
Q

cilia & flagellum

A

-cellular appendages
-contain a microtubule core with cytoplasm covered in plasma membrane
-beating or waving motions

98
Q

cilia

A

-short, numerous
-function to sweep substances over cell surface

99
Q

flagellum

A

-very long, singular
-function to propel cells through environment

100
Q

ribosomes

A

-site of protein synthesis
-contain 2 subunits: large and small, composed of 60% of rRNA & 40% protein

101
Q

protein synthesis

A

enzymes to peptide bond amino acids

102
Q

free ribosomes

A

in cytoplasm and manufacture protein for use in cytoplasm

103
Q

fixed ribosomes

A

attached to endoplasmic reticulum, manufacture proteins for export or for in the membrane

104
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

-a network of membranes made up of tubes, sacs & chambers called cisternae!
-attached to the nuclear envelope
-transport vesicles from RER dock on the cis face or forming face of Golgi and release contents into Golgi
- 2 forms: RER & SER

105
Q

rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

A

-studded with fixed ribosomes!
-ribosomes synthesize proteins and feed! them into RER cisternae to be modified (e.g. + carbs = glycoprotein)
-modified proteins put into transport vesicles to go to Golgi
-these proteins for exocytosis or use in membrane

106
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

-tubular membranes
-no ribosomes
-near nucleus but not attached

107
Q

functions of SER

A
  1. synthesis of phospholipids & cholesterol for membrane
  2. synthesis of steroid hormones
  3. synthesis & storage of triglycerides
  4. synthesis & storage of glycogen
  5. storage of Ca2+ ions in muscle cells
  6. detoxification/inactivation of drugs in kidney and liver cells
108
Q

functions of the ER

A

A. modifies and packages secretions
B. renews or modifies the cell membrane!
C. packages enzymes within vesicles to create a temporary digestive organelle called the lysosome

109
Q

golgi apparatus

A

-stack of cisternae with associated transport vesicles (vesicles composed of lipids & proteins from the ER)
-proteins (and glycoproteins) are modified (phosphate, carbohydrate, or lipids attached, polypeptides refolded)
-modified proteins transit between cisternae via vesicles from cis face (forming) to trans
face (maturing) and are concentrated and sorted by final function and destination
-at trans face, proteins are packaged into one
of three types of vesicles for transport: secretory, membrane renewal & lysosomes

110
Q

secretory vesicles

A

carry products to be exocytosed for use outside of cell

111
Q

membrane renewal vesicles

A

carry products to be incorporated into the plasma membrane

112
Q

lysosomes

A

temporary organelles, membrane bound sac of digestive enzymes

113
Q

lysosomes

A

-digestion center for large molecules or structures, cells can have many
-endosomes or phagosomes containing endocytosed things, and organelles and molecules targeted for destruction fused with the lysosome and enzymatically broken down
-some solutes diffuse into the cytoplasm for use, remaining debris is exocytosed
-failure of lysosomes results in buildup in cells that eventually prevents cell functions

114
Q

tay sach’s disease

A

-example of lysosome failure when lysosomes fail to break down glycolipids in nerve cells
-accumulation of glycolipids disrupts nerve function

115
Q

peroxisomes

A

-membrane sac containing oxidases and
catalases to neutralize free radicals
-free radicals (e.g. H2O 2) form during the catabolism of organic molecules
-not made by Golgi but by enzymes produced by free ribosomes

116
Q

proteasomes

A

-cylindrical structure composed of protein-digesting enzymes called proteases!
-functions to degrade and recycle damaged, denatured, or abnormal proteins
-hydrolyzes peptide bonds of proteins tagged
with ubiquitin to recycle amino acids

117
Q

mitochondria

A

-sausage-shaped double membrane
-outer membrane: smooth
-inner membrane folded
-folds called cristae
-center = matrix (fluid)
-aerobic cellular respiration occurs on the surface of cristae where glucose is catabolized creating CO2 & H2O waste to convert ADP into ATP
-have their own DNA
-can replicate independent of the cel

118
Q

nucleus

A

-control center of cell: directs protein synthesis (proteins are responsible for the structure and function of the cell)
-contains DNA: genetic material
-surrounded by nuclear envelope: double membrane, outer layer connected to ER
-has nuclear pores with regulator proteins that control exchange of molecules between cytoplasm and nucleus
-inside is DNA floating in nucleoplasm, with nucleotides, RNA, and protein enzymes!

119
Q

the DNA-RNA hybrid

A

16-18 base pairs of DNA are unwound and the most recently made RNA is still bound to DNA

120
Q

genetic code

A

-the language of the DNA that is read off a gene to assemble a protein
-3 bases of DNA = 1 codon
-each codon gives the instructions for one amino acid!

121
Q

genetic information

A

-this is only 1.5% of total DNA
-the remainder is involved with the control of genes, some appear to be junk (25%)
-noncoding parts of DNA (non-genes) are highly variable from one person to the next
-variability allows for the identification of an individual by DNA fingerprinting!
-for a gene to be expressed (used to make a product) it must be unwound from the histone proteins so it can be read

122
Q

gene activation (transcription)

A

-disassembly of the nucleosomes and unwinding of the DNA to copy the information
-controlled by signals from outside the nucleus, either from within the cell or in response to external cues (e.g.hormones)

123
Q

transcription (DNA -> RNA)

A

-DNA unwounded and separated into coding strand and template strand and RNA polymerase binds to promoter on template strand
-RNA polymerase uses free nucleotides from nucleoplasm to complenmentary base pair to template strand of DNA to build RNA copy

124
Q

transcription RNA process

A

-RNA produced exits the nucleus to the cytoplasm
-rRNA is assembled into ribosomes
-tRNA picks up amino acids!
-mRNA attaches to a ribosome

125
Q

translation (mRNA -> protein)

A

-making a protein using the mRNA blueprint
-occurs in the cytoplasm on free ribosomes or fixed ribosomes on the RER
1. two ribosomal subunits make a ribosome to read the codons on the mRNA and facilitate peptide bonds
2. mRNA contains the codons from start to stop to encode all the amino acids in the primary structure of a protein
3. tRNA carries an amino acid prescribed by anticodon, and then the anticodon base pairs with the correct mRNA codon to ensure delivery of the correct amino acid

126
Q

insertion mutation

A

add a base and change the reading frame; the whole protein after the mutation is wrong

126
Q

sickle cell anemia

A

-point mutation in DNA: A->T
-changes one codon: GAG->!GTG
-changes one amino acid: glutamic acid (- charged) -> valine (neutral)
-alters the 3D shape of the whole hemoglobin protein: globular -> fibrous
-changes the shape of red blood cell:
disc ->crescent
-prevents the RBC from carrying oxygen, and causes it to block capillaries

127
Q

deletion mutation

A

remove a base, alter reading frame, protein wrong

128
Q

life cycle of a cell

A

-life depends on the type of cell
-all cells eventually die
-lysosomes are defused to prevent damage to other cells
-stem cells
-to divide, DNA must be replicated and equally distributed between the stem cell and the new daughter cell

129
Q

stem cells

A

divide to replace dying cells

130
Q

mitosis

A

nuclear division

131
Q

interphase

A

-time that a cell performs its normal functions
-if a cell never divides, it remains in the G0 phase of interphase
-if the cell is preparing to divide, it will go through 3 stages in interphase: G1, S phase, G2

132
Q

G1 phase (interphase)

A

cell doubles organelles and synthesizes enough cytoplasm for two cells

133
Q

S phase (interphase)

A

cell duplicates DNA

134
Q

G2 phase (interphase)

A

copious protein synthesis: cell generates enough enzymes for two cells, centrioles are replicated

135
Q

DNA replication

A
  1. DNA helicases unwind the DNA and separate strands
  2. DNA polymerase binds to DNA and synthesizes complementary antiparallel strands
  3. DNA rewinds into double helix molecules, each new molecule contains one strand of original DNA and one new one
136
Q

okasaki fragments

A

-DNA polymerase can only add to the 3’ end of a molecule so one strand (leading) is synthesized continuously while the other strand (lagging) is synthesized in pieces
-attached end to end into one strand by DNA ligase

137
Q

prophase

A

-chromosomes condense and pair with duplicate sister chromatids attached by a centromere at the kinetochore
-nuclear envelope breaks down
-centrioles migrate to opposite poles
-spindle fibers form and attach to kinetochores

138
Q

metaphase

A

-chromosomes align on the metaphase plate (middle)

139
Q

anaphase

A

-centromeres split and sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles by the spindle apparatus

140
Q

telophase

A

-nuclear membrane forms
-chromosomes decondensed into chromatin
-spindle dissassembles
-cytokinesis occurs

141
Q

cytokinesis

A

cytoplasm constricts at the metaphase plate forming a cleavage furrow that pinches the cell apart

142
Q

cell division

A

-cell division is controlled by both internal and external factors
-in adults cell growth = cell death
-if growth exceeds death a tumor can form

143
Q

benign tumor

A

grow in a connective tissue capsule and remain in one place!

144
Q

malignant tumor

A

ignore growth control mechanisms: invade surrounding tissue and can metastasize to other locations in the body

145
Q

primary neoplasm (1° tumor)

A

cells grow uncontrolled, usually appear and behave abnormally

146
Q

2° tumor

A

cells metastasize in blood and lymph to establish new growth elsewhere

147
Q

oncogenes

A

genes involved in cell growth, differentiation or division

148
Q

spontaneous mutation

A

error rate of DNA polymerase, ~ 1 in 1 billion!

149
Q

tumors

A

-tumors trigger the growth of blood vessels to support the cells (for diffusion to bring nutrients and remove wastes all cells have to be within 125μm of a vessel)!
-eventually, the tumor will crowd out normal cells and deprive normal tissues of nutrients causing organ failure and death!

150
Q

mutagens

A

agents that can cause mutations in DNA (e.g. UV, cigarettes)

151
Q

carcinogens

A

agents that cause cancer (e.g. UV is both a mutagen and carcinogen estrogen is carcinogenic but not mutagenic)

152
Q

cell differentation

A

-all somatic cells in the body have the same DNA but different sizes, shapes, and functions
-differentiated cells only express genes related to their function; make a specific subset of all possible proteins, these limited proteins dictate the structure and function of the cell

153
Q

differentation

A

as cells specialize to become a specific cell type many genes get turned off; cells can no longer make those proteins, usually this is permanent

154
Q

embryotic stem cells

A

express all of their genes and become any cell type

155
Q

partial differentiation

A

stem cells that are limited in what cell type they can become

anatomy and physiology exam 1 (3 decks)

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