Chapter 3 - Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Flashcards
define organic compound
an organic compound is a compound containing carbon, associated with life
what are 3 types of biologically active macromolecule?
carbohydrates
proteins
nucleic acids
define hydrocarbon
a molecule containing only carbon and hydrogen
define functional group
arrangement of some atoms in a molecule, which result in the molecule having a predictable chemical character
what are the 7 chemical groups most important to biological processes?
hydroxyl group (forms alcohols)
carbonyl group (forms ketones, if in the middle of the carbon skeleton, OR or aldehydes, if at the the end of the carbon skeleton)
carboxyl group (forms carboxylic acid, aka organic acid)
amino group (forms amine)
sulfhydral group (forms thiol)
phosphate group (forms organic phosphate)
methyl group (forms methylated compounds)
what are the 6 functional groups most important to biology?
hydroxyl group (forms alcohols)
carbonyl group (forms ketones, if in the middle of the carbon skeleton, OR or aldehydes, if at the the end of the carbon skeleton)
carboxyl group (forms carboxylic acid, aka organic acid)
amino group (forms amine)
sulfhydral group (forms thiol)
phosphate group (forms organic phosphate)
hydroxyl
act as a functional group?
hydroxyl
can
act as a functional group
carboxyl
act as a functional group?
ATP stands for?
what is ATP?
adenosine triphosphate
ADP stands for?
how does it relate to ATP?
adenosine diphosphate
ATP becomes ADP by releasing energy and HOPO32- (inorganic phosphate ion)
what is a polymer?
a polymer is a long molecule, consisting of many similar or identical building blocks, linked by covalent bonds
(like a train)
define monomer
a monomer is the subunit of a polymer
define enzyme
an enzyme is a specialized macromolecule that speeds up chemical reactions
what is the dehydration reaction?
the dehydration reaction connects two monomers together. dehydration releases water.
what is hydrolosis?
hydrolysis breaks the bond between two monomers,
by the addition of water
define carbohydrate
carbohydrates include both sugars and polymers of sugars
define monosaccharide
monosaccharides
(individual sugar units)
generally have molecular formulas that are some multiple of CH20
examples include:
glucose and fructose (hexoses)
ribose (pentose)
can exist in either ring or straight form
define disaccharide
a disaccharide
consists of two monosaccharides
joined by a glycosidic linkage
define polysaccharides
polysaccharides
are polymers of many (a few –> hundreds) of monosaccharides
joined by glycosidic linkages
what is starch?
starch storage polysacchiride.
starch is a polymer of (alpha) glucose molecules
plants and animals store sugar for later use in the form of starch
what is glycogen?
glycogen is a storage polysacchiride
glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose
that animals use to store sugars (mainly in liver and muscle cells)
what is cellulose?
cellulose is a structural polysaccharide
cellulose is a polymer of alternating beta glucose molecules which form microfibrils (extra strength) by hydrogen bonding between the long chains
animals cannot digest cellulose
(don’t have the right enzymes – some prokaryotes and protists do, like the ones in a cow’s gut)
what is chitin?
chitin is a structural polysaccharide
used by arthropods (insects, crustaceans) to build their exoskeletons
what are lipids?
lipids are a group of compounds that do not mix with water.
lipids are generally small (not macromolecules)
what two components make up fat?
fat is made up of:
glycerol (an alcohol with 3 connection points)
fatty acids (3)
what is glycerol?
glycerol is an alcohol. it serves as the “backbone” for a fat molecule. it has three connection points for fatty acids, three C-OH groups.
what is a fatty acid?
a fatty acid is a longer carbon chain (usually 16-18 carbons).
the carboxyl group (O-C=O) group at one end binds to the hydroxyl group on glycerol to form an ester linkage, as part of forming a fat molecule.
the carboxyl group gives it the name fatty acid.
what is a tricylglycerol?
triacylglycerol is another word for fat.
it is a type of lipid.
it has three fatty acid and one glycerol.
what is a saturated fatty acid?
a saturated fat has only single bonds.
thus, it is saturated with hydrogen atoms.
(has max # hydrogen possible.)
a saturated fat (with only saturated fatty acids) is generally solid at room temp.
what is an unsaturated fatty acid?
an unsaturated fatty acid has one or more carbon double bonds.
thus it does not have the max # hydrogen possible.
an unsaturated fat (made with at least one unsaturated fatty acid) is generally liquid at room temp.
what is a phospholipid?
a phospholipid is a type of lipid.
it contains 2 fatty acids (nonpolar tails) and 1 phosphate group (polar head)
attached to the glycerol
what is a steroid?
a steroid is a type of lipid.
it has 4 fused rings.
example:cholesterol.
what makes up fat?
fat has three fatty acid and one glycerol.
aka. triacylglycerol
what is a catalyst?
what is an example of a biological catalyst?
a catalyst speeds up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction.
enzymes (type of protein) are biological catalysts
what is a protein?
a protein is a biologically functional molecule that consists of 1 or more polypeptides (folded and coiled into a specific 3-d structure)
what is a polypeptide?
a polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids
proteins are made up of polypeptide(s)
what are the 8 common protein functions?
8 common protein reactions:
enzymatic proteins
storage proteins
hormonal proteins
contractile and motor proteins
defensive proteins
transport proteins
receptor proteins
structural proteins
what are amino acids?
amino acids are the building blocks of protein.
an amino acid is an organic molecule with both an an amino group and a carboxyl group.
what do enzymatic proteins do?
enzymatic proteins are used for the selective acceleration of chemical reactions
what do storage proteins do?
storage proteins are for the storage of amino acids
what do hormonal proteins do?
hormonal proteins are for coordination/regulation of an organism’s internal activities
what do contractile & motor proteins do?
contractile & motor proteins are responsible for movement
what do defensive proteins do?
defensive proteins are for protection against disease
ex: antibodies
what do transport proteins do?
transport proteins move substances within the body
ex: through cell membrane
ex: throughout the body via blood networks
what do receptor proteins do?
receptor proteins allow response of a cell to chemical stimuli
what do structural proteins do?
structural proteins provide support
what 20 amino acids are important for biology?
what is a peptide bond?
it is the bond between two conjoined amino acids.
it is formed through the dehydration reaction,
between the carboxyl group on 1st and the amino group on 2nd
what are the 4 levels of proteins structure?
primary - linear chain of amino acids
secondary - stabilization by backbone’s hydrogen bond interactions
(alpha helix and beta sheet)
tertiary - three-dimensional shape stabilized by interactions between side chains (active chains)
quaternary - when a protein molecule consists of more than one polypeptide, wound around each other
what is the primary structure of a protein?
the primary structure of a protein is a chain of linked amino acids
what is the secondary structure of a protein?
the secondary structure of a protein is given by hydrogen bond interactions between the repeating constituents of the backbone (of the chain, of the polypeptide)
alpha helix
beta pleated sheet
what is a protein’s tertiary structure?
a protein’s tertiary structure is a polypeptide’s “coiled” form, when it forms a shape which is stabilized by interactions between the side chains
“hydrophobic interactions” – nonpolar side chain near each other cluster
“disulfide bridges” – covalent bond between two cysteine monomers (-SH ends –> S-S bond)
what is a protein’s quarternary structure?
a protein’s quaternary structure comes from the aggregation of more than 1 polypeptide into the functional protein macromolecule
what is denaturation?
proteins are denatured when they “unravel” and lose their shape
often because of its environment (pH, salt concentration, heat)
ex: albumin (egg white) is denatured when it turns white
what is renaturation?
renaturation is the reversal of denaturation.
it is not always possible.
what are nucleic acids?
nucleic acids are polymers made up of nucleotide monomers
what is DNA?
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
is genetic material inherited from parents, which encodes for different proteins
what is RNA?
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
is a copy of the DNA that can actually participate in protein synthesis
types includEe
messenger RNA
ribosomal RNA
transfer RNA
what are nucleotides?
nucleotides are the monomers that make up DNA
they (generally) contain:
a nitrogen-containing base
a 5-carbon sugar (pentose)
1 or more phosphate groups
what is a polynucleotide?
a polynucleotide is a polymer made up of nucleotide monomers
what is pyrimidine?
pyrimidine has one ring (carbon and nitrogen)
it is one of the 2 types of nitrogenous base for DNA (the interesting bit)
pyrimidines form:
cytosine
thymine
uracil
what are purines?
purine has two ring (carbon and nitrogen, one 6 and one 5 pointed)
it is one of the 2 types of nitrogenous base for DNA (the interesting bit)
purines include:
adenine
guanine
what is the difference between DNA and RNA?
the sugars in the nucleotide are different
RNA has an -OH where DNA only has an -H
(hence, deoxy)
what are the 1’, 2’, 3’, 4’, and 5’ positions in nucleotides? (DNA or RNA)
they are positions around the sugar (except 5’)
1’ –> nitrogenous base (the interesting bit)
2’ –> difference in DNA or RNA (-H or -OH)
3’ –> bonds to phosphate group (off 5’) to create backbone
4’ –> goes to 5’
5’ –> NOT ON RING - goes to phosphate group, which bonds to 3’ to create backbone
what is the double helix?
the double helix is two strands of complementary DNA wound around each other
the two strands are held together with hydrogen bond interactions between the nitrogenous bases
the backbones face “outward” to protect the nitrogenous bases
