Chapter 3 - Birth

Question 1

What does Evolutionary Psychology focus on?

Answer 1

Evolutionary psychology focuses on how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time.

Question 2

What is more important, survival or reproduction?

Answer 2

Reproductive success, not survival success, is the engine of evolution by natural selection.

But why?

Question 3

What do evolutionary psychologists think about men, women, and attraction?

Answer 3

Modern women have inherited the evolutionary trait to desire mates who possess resources, have qualities linked with acquiring resources (e.g., ambition, wealth, industriousness), and are willing to share those resources with them. On the other hand, men more strongly desire youth and health in women, as both are cues to fertility. These male and female differences have historically been universal in humans.

Question 4

What are 2 important sex cells?

Answer 4

There are two types of sex cells or gametes involved in reproduction: the male gametes, or sperm, and female gametes, or ova.

Question 5

GOOD chunk of info about Chromosomes, DNA, genes, and alleles

Answer 5

While other normal human cells have 46 chromosomes (or 23 pair), gametes contain 23 chromosomes. Chromosomes are long threadlike structures found in a cell nucleus that contain genetic material known as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is a helix-shaped molecule made up of nucleotide base pairs [adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T)]. In each chromosome, sequences of DNA make up genes that control or partially control a number of visible characteristics, known as traits, such as eye color, hair color, and so on. A single gene may have multiple possible variations or alleles. An allele is a specific version of a gene. So, a given gene may code for the trait of hair color, and the different alleles of that gene affect which hair color an individual has.

Question 6

What is Meiosis?

Answer 6

In a process called meiosis, segments of the chromosomes from each parent form pairs and genetic segments are exchanged as determined by chance.

Question 7

Genotype vs. Phenotype

Answer 7

A person’s genotype is the genetic makeup of that individual. Phenotype, on the other hand, refers to the individual’s inherited physical characteristics.

Question 8

hOW MANY PairS of CHROMOsoMeS DO PEoPLE HaVE?

Answer 8

46

Question 9

What is Gregor Mendel’s model of genetic inheritance?

Answer 9

For genes on an autosome (any chromosome other than a sex chromosome), the alleles and their associated traits are autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive. In this model, some genes are considered dominant because they will be expressed. Others, termed recessive, are only expressed in the absence of a dominant gene.

Question 10

Difference between Heterozygous and Homozygous?

Answer 10

When someone has two copies of the same allele, they are said to be homozygous for that allele. When someone has a combination of alleles for a given gene, they are said to be heterozygous.

Question 11

What is a mutation?

Answer 11

A mutation is a sudden, permanent change in a gene.

Question 12

Age and Chromosomal disorders

Answer 12

The most common cause of chromosomal abnormalities is the age of the mother. A 20-year-old woman has a 1 in 800 chance of having a child with a common chromosomal abnormality. A woman of 44, however, has a one in 16 chance.

Question 13

What are some chromosomal malignancies?

Answer 13

Deletions - A portion of the chromosome is missing or deleted.

Duplications - A portion of the chromosome is duplicated, resulting in extra genetic material.

Translocations - A portion of one chromosome is transferred to another chromosome.

• Reciprocal translocations - Segments from two different chromosomes have been exchanged.
• Robertsonian translocations - An entire chromosome has attached to another at the centromere

Inversions - A portion of the chromosome has broken off, turned upside down, and reattached, therefore the genetic material is inverted.

Insertions - A portion of one chromosome has been deleted from its normal place and inserted into another chromosome.

Rings - A portion of a chromosome has broken off and formed a circle or ring.

Isochromosome - Formed by the mirror image copy of a chromosome segment including the centromere.

Question 14

Prenatal Screening and MORE

Answer 14

Prenatal screening focuses on finding problems among a large population with affordable and noninvasive methods. The most common screening procedures are routine ultrasounds, blood tests, and blood pressure measurement. Prenatal diagnosis focuses on pursuing additional detailed information once a particular problem has been found, and can sometimes be more invasive.

Question 15

What are the 3 main purposes of prenatal diagnosis?

Answer 15

(1) to enable timely medical or surgical treatment of a condition before or after birth,
(2) to give the parents the chance to abort a fetus with the diagnosed condition
(3) to give parents the chance to prepare psychologically, socially, financially, and medically for a baby with a health problem or disability, or for the likelihood of a stillbirth.

Question 16

Nature or Nurture?

Answer 16

[Actually], almost all human features are polygenic (a result of many genes) and multifactorial (a result of many factors, both genetic and environmental).

Question 17

What does ‘epigenetic’ mean?

Answer 17

The term “epigenetic” has been used in developmental psychology to describe psychological development as the result of an ongoing, bi-directional interchange between heredity and the environment.

Question 18

Erikson’s Epigenetic Principle

Answer 18

The developmental psychologist Erik Erikson wrote of an epigenetic principle in his book Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968), encompassing the notion that we develop through an unfolding of our personality in predetermined stages, and that our environment and surrounding culture influence how we progress through these stages. This biological unfolding in relation to our socio-cultural settings is done in stages of psychosocial development, where “progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages.”

Question 19

What is behavioral genetics?

Answer 19

The science of how genes and environments work together to influence behavior is called behavioral genetics.

Question 20

Monozygotic vs Dizygotic Twins

Answer 20

To analyze nature–nurture using twins, we compare the similarity of monozygotic and dizygotic pairs. Monozygotic twins occur when a single zygote or fertilized egg splits apart in the first two weeks of development. The result is the creation of two separate but genetically identical offspring.

Sometimes two eggs or ova are released and fertilized by two separate sperm. The result is dizygotic or fraternal twins. About two-thirds of twins are dizygotic. These two individuals share the same amount of genetic material as would any two children from the same mother and father.

Question 21

What is the placenta?

Answer 21

The placenta is a temporary organ that connects the developing fetus via the umbilical cord to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, thermo-regulation, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother’s blood supply.

Question 22

What is the amniotic sac?

Answer 22

The amniotic sac (also called the bag of waters or the membranes), is a thin but tough transparent pair of membranes that hold a developing embryo (and later fetus) until shortly before birth.

Question 23

Monozygotic (one egg/identical) twins can be categorized into four types depending on the timing of the separation and duplication of cells.

What are they?

Answer 23

Morula - Dichorionic/Diamniotic
Blastocyst - Monochorionic/Diamniotic
Implanted Blastocyst - Monochorionic/Monoamniotic
Formed Embryonic Disc - Conjoined twins.

Question 24

What are quantitative genetics?

Answer 24

quantitative genetics, the scientific discipline in which similarities among individuals are analyzed based on how biologically related they are.

Question 25

Nature v nurture, but nature kinda wins?

Answer 25

. The more genetically-related people are, the more similar they are—for everything: height, weight, intelligence, personality, mental illness, etc. Sure, it seems like common sense that some traits have a genetic bias.

Question 26

What are the 3 stages in prenatal development?

Answer 26

Germinal Embryonic Fetal

Question 27

What is the germinal period?

Answer 27

The span covering weeks 1-2 after conception which occurs when a sperm fertilizes an egg and makes a zygote which is a single-celled structure. The zygote divides in a process called mitosis. Once the zygote attaches to the uterus, the next stage of prenatal development begins.

Question 28

What is the Embryonic period of prenatal development?

Answer 28

The span covering the 3rd-8th weeks after conception in which the implanted zygote is now called an embryo and blood vessels grow forming the placenta which is a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oyxgen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord. During this time, cells continue to differentiate and basic structures of embryo start to develop into the areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen. The heart begins to beat in this stage. Growth during prenatal development occurs in two major directions: from head to tail (cephalocaudal development) and from the midline outward (proximodistal development) It is during this stage that the major structures of the body are taking form making the embryonic period the time when the organism is most vulnerable to the greatest amount of damage if exposed to harmful substances.

Question 29

What stage is the embryo at greatest risk?

Answer 29

Embryonic development. It is during this stage that the major structures of the body are taking form making the embryonic period the time when the organism is most vulnerable to the greatest amount of damage if exposed to harmful substances.

Question 30

What is the fetal period of development?

Answer 30

The span of time that covers the 9th-40th weeks of development. During this period the organism is called a fetus. 9-12 weeks -sex organs develop and differentiate -hair, nails, teeth develop 16-24 weeks -Eyes become light sensitive -Hearing develops -Respiratory system continues to develop. -Reflexes like sucking, swallowing, and hiccupping develop -sleep cycles occur -Brain almost doubles in size -Fetus can feel pain at 24 weeks. The first chance of survival outside the womb, known as the age of viability is reached at about 22 to 26 weeks. 28-36 weeks -Fetus exercises muscles -Gets fatter and longer -Prepares for birth 36 - 40 weeks -Fetus almost ready for birth. -All organ systems are developed for survival -Gets bigger

Question 31

What are teratogens?

Answer 31

Teratogens are factors that can contribute to birth defects which include some maternal diseases, drugs, alcohol, and stress.

Question 32

What is teratology?

Answer 32

The study of factors that contribute to birth defects is called teratology.

Question 33

What are some common teratogens?

Answer 33

Drugs Stress Alcohol

Question 34

Alcohol as teratogen

Answer 34

There is no acceptable safe limit for alcohol use during pregnancy, but binge drinking (5 or more drinks on a single occasion) or having 7 or more drinks during a single week places a child at particularly high risk. In extreme cases, alcohol consumption can lead to fetal death, but more frequently it can result in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD).

Question 35

WHAT is FASD?!

Answer 35

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Children with FASD share certain physical features such as flattened noses, small eye openings, small heads, intellectual developmental delays, and behavioral problems. Those with FASD are more at risk for lifelong problems such as criminal behavior, psychiatric problems, and unemployment

Question 36

What are risk factors for prenatal problems?

Answer 36

Timing of exposure - Structures in the body are most vulnerable while they are developing. Amount of exposure - Some substances are not harmful unless the amounts reach a certain level. This is impacted by the metabolism of the mother. Genetics - Genetics affect how much teratogens affect a baby. Being Male or Female - Males are more likely to experience damage from teratogens than females.

Question 37

What are some minor problems with getting pregnant?

Answer 37

These side effects include nausea (particularly during the first 3-4 months of pregnancy as a result of higher levels of estrogen in the system), heartburn, gas, hemorrhoids, backache, leg cramps, insomnia, constipation, shortness of breath or varicose veins (as a result of carrying a heavy load on the abdomen). What is the cure? Delivery!

Question 38

What are some major problems with getting pregnant?

Answer 38

Gestational diabetes is when a woman without diabetes develops high blood sugar levels during pregnancy. Hyperemesis gravidarum is the presence of severe and persistent vomiting, causing dehydration and weight loss. It is more severe than the more common morning sickness. Preeclampsia is gestational hypertension. Severe preeclampsia involves blood pressure over 160/110 with additional signs. Eclampsia is seizures in a pre-eclamptic patient. Deep vein thrombosis is the formation of a blood clot in a deep vein, most commonly in the legs. A pregnant woman is more susceptible to infections. This increased risk is caused by an increased immune tolerance in pregnancy to prevent an immune reaction against the fetus. Peripartum cardiomyopathy is a decrease in heart function which occurs in the last month of pregnancy, or up to six months post-pregnancy.

Question 39

Maternal mortality rates

Answer 39

About 830 women die from pregnancy or childbirth-related complications around the world every day. Almost all maternal deaths (99%) occur in developing countries. More than half of these deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa and almost one third occur in South Asia.

Question 40

Why do black women in the u.s. die from childbirth 3x more than white women?

Answer 40

Poor health before pregnancy Little access to care and quality of care during pregnancy and childbirth Lack of recovery, support, and access to care after childbirth.

Question 41

What is miscarriage?

Answer 41

Spontaneous abortion is experienced in an estimated 20-40 percent of undiagnosed pregnancies and in another 10 percent of diagnosed pregnancies. Usually, the body aborts due to chromosomal abnormalities and this typically happens before the 12th week of pregnancy. Cramping and bleeding result and normal periods return after several months. Some women are more likely to have repeated miscarriages due to chromosomal, amniotic, or hormonal problems; but miscarriage can also be a result of defective sperm (Carroll et al., 2003).

Question 42

How many stages are involved in labor?

Answer 42

3 stages

Question 43

Labor stages

Answer 43

Stage 1: -Longest stage -30 sec contractions every 15-20 mins -1 min contractions every 3-4 mins -True labor pain increases with walking, it doesnt go away when walking. -Takes 12-16 (or sometimes over 24) hours to dilate completely. Stage 2: -Takes 10-40 mins -Baby passes through birth canal. -Contractions every 2-3 mins Stage 3: -Afterbirth -within 20 minutes of baby being born -Placenta comes out

Question 44

What is the APGAR?

Answer 44

The APGAR is conducted one minute and five minutes after birth. This is a very quick way to assess the newborn's overall condition. Five measures are assessed: the heart rate, respiration, muscle tone (quickly assessed by a skilled nurse when the baby is handed to them or by touching the baby's palm), reflex response (the Babinski reflex is tested), and color. A score of 0 to 2 is given on each feature examined. An APGAR of 5 or less is cause for concern. The second APGAR should indicate improvement with a higher score.

Question 45

What is the NBAS?

Answer 45

There are several ways to assess the condition of the newborn. The most widely used tool is the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) This tool has been used around the world to help parents get to know their infants and to make comparisons of infants in different cultures The baby's motor development, muscle tone, and stress response are assessed.

Question 46

Anoxia and Hypoxia

Answer 46

One of leading causes of infant brain damage is lack of oxygen shortly after birth. Hypoxia occurs when the infant is deprived of the adequate amount of oxygen, leading to mild to moderate brain damage. Apoxia occurs when the infant undergoes a total lack of oxygen, which can lead to severe brain damage. This lack of oxygen is typically caused by umbilical cord problems, birth canal problems, blocked airways, and placenta abruption. Both hypoxia and anoxia can lead to cerebral palsy and a host of other medical disorders. [8]