Chapter 3 Flashcards
End of Byzantine empire
attack of Constantinople
Constantinople, an ancient Christian city, was all that remained from the declining Byzantine Empire. This empire dated back to the 4th Century. It used to be the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Constantinople was still a large fortified city that would not be conquered easily.
Attack of Constantinople
- In 1453, Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, was attacked by Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire. -Mehmed II had meticulously planned his decisive attack on the Byzantine capital.
- He had 70 ships pulled on land all the way to the Black Sea to cut Constantinople from the rest of the world. He also had the largest canon ever used at his disposition to demolish the fortified walls of Constantinople.
consequences fall Constantinople
The fall of Constantinople was awful economic news for Europe. Constantinople had been an important market where the European merchants could regularly acquire oriental goods such as silk and the spices that made their food edible (cinnamon, pepper, ginger, nutmeg, cloves…).
what problem were the 16th century merchants faced with
-The expansion of the Ottoman Empire in the 15th and 16th Century disrupted traditional trade routes that had allowed European merchants to obtain Asian goods in Constantinople. They needed to find a new route to bypass the Ottoman Empire that was hostile to the commercial interests of European merchants and kingdoms.
solution to the probelm faced by 16th century merchants after the fall of constantinople (tools)
- Luckily the Europeans had developed many inventions such as the caravel, the compass and the astrolabe (it measures latitude) during the Renaissance.
- These inventions facilitated navigation on the high seas.
ancient map of the world and its uses
-European explorers also “benefited” from the rediscovery of the works of Ptolemy, an ancient astronomer and geographer. This map was misleading because many things are missing such as the Pacific Ocean, the Americas and Australia. Thus, it gave the impression that the planet is smaller than it actually is.
OG travel blog influencer
-The publication of the The Travels of Marco Polo also inspired men to seek glory and wealth through exploration.
the first European country to begin exploration. which ruler and why
- Henry the Navigator, a Portuguese prince from the Aviz dynasty, was the first wealthy European to finance long voyages at sea.
- Portugal was a poor and small kingdom that lived permanently in fear of being conquered by Spain. Finding wealth in distant lands could make the Portuguese feel stronger and safer.
first Portuguese age of exploration discoveries
-The first Portuguese explorers were able to discover islands of the Atlantic such as the Azores (1427), Cape Verde (1444).
other Portuguese discoveries, (land the the resources found there)
-The Portuguese also explored areas the western littoral of Africa such as Sierra Leone and Ghana to have a maritime access to gold from the Niger River (Gold was very rare in Europe. The presence of great quantities of gold in the Niger River was known since 1324 when King Musa I of Mali made his pilgrimage to Mecca. He injected so much gold into the economy of Mecca that it caused major inflation problems in Arabia during the ensuing years).
economic consequences of exploration for the Portuguese
-The Portuguese voyages to Africa allowed them to become involved in lucrative endeavors such as trading slaves, ivory and gold in exchange for European goods like guns (enslaved Africans were brought into Portugal as early as 1444 for the sugar planters on the Portuguese island of Madeira. This system of exploiting enslaved Africans was extended to the Americas).
Major commercial discovery vis a vis trade paths (not America)
-In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias (portuguese) became the first European explorer to sail around the Cape of Good Hope, the southernmost point of the African continent. They were the first European to navigate from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean.-This was a major breakthrough but Dias did not reach India because his crew suffered from scurvy. Dias faced a mutiny and he was forced to return to Portugal.
Vasco de Gama
- Vasco de Gama used this route (cape hope) to reach Calcutta, India in 1497 (he also faced threats of munity from his crew due to many cases scurvy).
- His voyage lasted 2 years. It was extremely profitable since he was able to fill his ships with expensive oriental spices.
new port from this new trade route to the Indies
-Many of his [Vasco de Gama] countrymen imitated him. The port of Goa on the west coast of India became a regular destination for Portuguese merchants.
Who rejected Columbus
- The Portuguese were satisfied. They knew after 1488 when Dias sailed pass the Cape of Good Hope that they were about to make a major breakthrough. This is why they had ignored Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator, who had tried to convince them that sailing westward would allow them to reach India more quickly than by going around Africa (Columbus conceived this idea as early as the 1470s).
- Columbus was also turned down in England by Henry VII (i.e., the father and redecessor of Henry VIII).
who said yes Columbus
- Columbus turned to the monarchs of Spain, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. This royal couple had merged their kingdoms with their marriage in 1469.
- The Spanish rulers were busy with the Reconquista between 1469 and 1492 so they made Columbus wait. (The Reconquista was a long series of conflict that allowed the Christians of Spain to reconquer the territories that had been invaded by Muslims in the 8th Century).
- In 1492, the monarchs of Spain definitively defeated the Moors (Muslims from southern Spain) by conquering Granada, the last Muslim kingdom of Europe. The Reconquista was finally over. The monarchs of Spain were in a festive mood and they accepted to invest in Columbus’s plan.
Columbus squad
-The triumphant royal couple decided to give 120 men and 3 vessels (Nina, Pinta and Santa Maria) to Columbus.
Columbus mission
His mission was to find a western passage to India and precious minerals.
Why was Columbus’ calculations off ?
Columbus never believed that the Earth is flat but he badly underestimated the circumference of the Earth like most of his contemporaries (he believed that Japan was only 4,000 kilometers east of Europe. The real distance is 20,000 kilometers).
how long trip 2 where Columbus
-It took Columbus and his crew 5 weeks to reach the Bahamas. He also reached the island of Hispaniola during his first voyage.
first meeting Columbus and first aboriginal people
-During his first voyage Columbus met the Caribs and Arawaks and he called them Indians. He was surprised by their lack of clothing and weapons:
Columbus other trips ?
-Columbus made three other voyages to the New World during which he discovered the main islands of the Caribbean such as Puerto Rico, Cuba, Jamaica and Trinidad (1493, 1498 and 1502). He assumed that these islands were part of Asia.
Final trip ? Columbus constats?
-Columbus did reach the continent of the Americas by arriving in Panama during his last voyage in 1502 but he never admitted that he discovered a new continent.
first map americas
-It was Amerigo Vespucci who was financed by Portugal in 1507 that made the first map of the Americas.
Balboa discovery
-The Spaniards returned to Panama in 1513. They were led by Balboa who discovered the Pacific Ocean (Francisco Pizzaro, a future conquistador was part of the crew of Balboa).
epidemiological consequences of the age of exploration
- The first European explorers carried contagious European viral diseases such as smallpox, influenza and the plague that had never existed in the Americas and they exploited and mistreated the natives (the Caribs and the Arawaks were decimated by the Spaniards).
- For example, the island of Hispaniola had a population of 250,000 people when Columbus arrived. This native population declined drastically to only 500 people during the next 40 years (Kreis, 2002).
first expedition around the earth who from where
-Ferdinand Magellan’s expedition completed the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1522. He left Spain with five ships (Magellan was from Portugal but he was financed by Spain).
Explain how Magellan #girl bossed too close to the sun
- Magellan’s mission was to find a way through the Americas to reach Asia.
- He discovered that strait that now bears his name but his journey proved to be longer and harder than expected. It took more than one month to navigate across the Strait of Magellan. He lost two ships in the process.
- It took him more than 3 months to cross the Pacific Ocean-Magellan was killed in the Philippines after crossing the Pacific.
- Juan Sebastian Elcano and 18 crewmembers were able to salvage a vessel and complete the voyage.
how was “Magellan’s” voyage important
-This voyage proved that the Earth was undoubtedly round that it was possible to sail around it.
how did all the new geographical discoveries influence England and France
-These achievements inspired England to send John Cabot (1497) and France sent Jacques Cartier (1534). But they both failed to find a passage to India and their kingdoms were not able to establish permanent colonies in the Americas before the 17th Century (i.e., Jamestown, Virginia and Quebec City).
The legal owners of the new world
- On the other hand, the Spanish and the Portuguese had already claimed that the New World belonged to them as early as 1494 with the Treaty of Tordesillas.
- In 1500, Cabral took possession of Brazil for Portugal but this small kingdom did not plan to establish other large colonies.
- The Portuguese simply hoped to develop a system of commercial outposts (Brazil became so prosperous that the Portuguese were unable to control trade in this colony).
Brazil’s economy
-Sugar was the cornerstone of Brazil’s economy. This colony received the largest share of the 12 to 15 million enslaved Africans who completed the Middle Passage.
How did Spain’s conquest differ from Portugal’s
- The lion’s share of the continent was taken by Spain:
unlike Portugal, Spain found its empire on conquest and colonization, and not trade(Kreis, 2002). - The Spanish conquistadors were obsessed with “God, Glory and Gold”. Because of their desire for gold and glory the Spaniards quickly turned exploration into exploitation in the early 16th Century.
Herman Cortés leave Spain why and when
-Hernan Cortés had left Spain in 1504 to move to Hispaniola
Herman Cortés Begin mission goal (officioal and personal) when where and
-In 1519 he left Cuba and landed in Veracruz (Mexico). His mission was only to explore the Yucatan Peninsula.
–Cortes had heard stories of an advanced and wealthy civilization in that part of the Americas.
-Cortes had too much ambition to settle for the reconnaissance mission he was given. He was a conqueror and he burned his ships as soon as he arrived in Veracruz to make sure that his troops would no turn back.
Cortés ressources (6 elements)
-Cortes had 600 men, 10 cannons and 16 horses (Grant, 2009). He was also accompanied by La Malinche (she is also known as Dona Marina and she was Cortes`s mistress), his interpreter and about 250 other natives. He also had intimidating dogs that were commonly use in European wars.
Cortés final destination
-Their ultimate destination was Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), the capital of the Aztec Empire that had been founded around 1325 (the city used to be an island. It was surrounded by Lake Texcoco. This lake was a basin that does not exist anymore).
Cortés alliances
-On his way to Tenochtitlan, Cortes defeated the Tlaxcalas and he forced them into an alliance against the Aztecs.
Initial reaction from the Aztecs towards the Spanish
- Montezuma (Moctezuma), the emperor of the Aztecs, was surprised by the visit of Cortés and his troops. He also had reports that the Spaniards had very powerful weapons.
- Montezuma was hospitable and the Spaniards were able to stay in the Aztecs’ imperial capital:
A sumptuous dinner was provided for us according to their use and custom, and we ate it at once. So this was our lucky and daring entry into the great city of TenochtitlanBernal Diaz del Castillo, 1567.
What was the initial explanation of the Aztecs towards the Spanish
-The traditional explanation is that Montezuma believed that Cortés could be Quetzalcoatl, a god that was supposed to come back to Earth. - this probs not true
Cortés initial reaction towards the Aztecs
-Cortes was also impressed by the Aztec capital that was one of the largest cities in the world in the 16th century with a population of approximately 250,000 inhabitants: “considering that this is a barbarous nation (Aztec Empire) shut off from knowledge of the true God and communication with enlightened nations, one may marvel at the orderliness and the good government which is everywhere maintained.” Hernan Cortés
Cortés later relationship with Montezuma
-Cortes took advantage of Montezuma’s indecisiveness and hospitality. He captured him and Cortes started to use Montezuma to exert his own power over the Aztecs.
problems arising form Cortés in Tenochtitlan
- In 1520, Cortes encountered a few problems. Many Aztecs were determined to get rid of their ungrateful Spanish guests despite the indecisiveness of their leader, Moctezuma.
- Moreover, Spanish troops had been sent to arrest Cortes for his insubordination since he had been told to limit his mission to exploring the Yucatan Peninsula. This threatened to derail Cortes’s plans so he had to leave Tenochtitlan.
How did Cortés solve the problem of his looming arrest
-Cortes described the wealth the he saw in the Aztec capital and he convinced the Spaniards sent to arrest him to stay in Mexico and help him instead.
Montezuma end of rule
- In the meantime, the Aztecs rebelled against Montezuma and the Spanish troops that Cortes had left in Tenochtitlan.
- Montezuma was stoned to death by his fellow Aztecs and the Spaniards were forced to retreat to Tlaxcala to reunite with their allies and plan their final showdown against the Aztecs.
other than technology what was the biggest help in the eventual defeat of the Aztec capital (other than allies)
-The Spaniards also left the smallpox in the capital of the Aztecs. This illness ravaged the population of Tenochtitlan.
other than technology what was the biggest help in the eventual defeat of the Aztec capital (Socioplitical)
-Cortés and his allies fully took advantage of the fact that the Aztecs had been cruel and unpopular rulers with their subjects (the Aztecs ruled over about 6,000,000 to 10,000,000 people in central Mexico). -
Hatred of the Aztecs convinced other natives of Mexico to join Cortes. Hence, Cortes had approximately 200, 000 soldiers to overthrow the Aztecs (he started with only 660 men two years earlier).
why were the surrounding populations so unhappy with the Aztecs
- The Aztecs believed that they had to perform sacrifices to make sure that the sun would keep rising. They maintained their empire in a perpetual state of war due to their belief that their gods had an insatiable hunger for human sacrifices.
- The Aztecs could execute up to 5,000 captives per day. The steps of their temple of Tenochtitlan were permanently covered in blood (Levak et. Al., 2006, p.252)
- The Aztecs were feared and loathed by neighboring peoples because of these human sacrifices.
describe the conquest of Tenochtitlan
Cortés and his troops were able to conquer Tenochtitlan after a long siege during the summer of 1521.
- They used their canons destroy the city while the Aztecs were dying of smallpox and starvation.
- Cortes`s native allies were eager to finish what the Spaniards had started when they entered the Aztec capital. This source is from a native of Mexico who witnessed the takeover of Tenochtitlan by the Spanish Conquistadors and their native allies: “The cries of the helpless women and children were heart-rending. The Tlaxcalans and the other enemies of the Aztecs revenged themselves pitilessly for old offences and robbed them of everything they could find” Alva Ixtilxochitl, 1521
in short and in details what were the principal advantages that led to the conquest of Tenochtitlan
–Cortes and his acolytes were able to overtake the empire of the Aztecs between 1519 and 1523 because of smallpox, their allies, their horses, their metal weapons and their canons.
(Guns, Germs and Steel… and allies) + horses and dogs
Fate of the rest of Mexico
-The Spanish conquistadors progressively overtook the rest of Mexico to form the colony of New Spain. They discovered remnants of the Maya Empire such as the site of Chichen Itza in 1532. -The arrival of the Spaniards in 1519 had dire consequences for the natives of Mexico because of diseases, cruelty and exploitation. Their native population declined from 25 to 2 million between the arrival of Cortés (1519) and 1600 (Kreis, 2002).
Who conquered the Inca
Francisco Pizarro
True or False Cortés and Pizarro led very similar campaigns
- The story of Francisco Pizarro’s conquest is similar to Cortés victory over the Aztecs.
- Pizarro was a distant cousin of Cortes who had moved to Panama after being part of Balboa`s aforementioned expedition.
Pizarro Goal and company
- Pizarro landed on the west coast of South America (Peru) in 1532. This was his third attempt to find wealth and glory in this part of the Americas.
- He had 180 men, horses, canons and metal weapons.
The socio-political position of the Inca Empire Around the time that Pizarro arrived
- The Incas dominated this part in the Americas since 1438 but they were already weakened by a smallpox pandemic that killed the emperor Huyana Capac in 1528. –His death triggered a civil war between his two sons, Atahualpa and Huascar. Atahualpa and his followers emerged triumphant
- Pizarro’s timing could not have been better. Atahualpa was an inexperienced leader who was facing crises that were weakening his empire (i.e., the smallpox pandemic and the divisive civil war that had just ended).
The territorial position of the Inca Empire Around the time that Pizarro arrived
The Incas were still strong. They were able to effectively control territories in the Andes stretching from present-day Colombia to Chile.
-It was the largest empire in the world when Pizarro arrived there in 1532. For example, the empire of the Incas was 5 times larger than the empire of the Aztecs.
Inca Empire infrasctructure
-The Inca Empire was also remarkably well-organized. The Incas had an impressive network of pedestrian roads to facilitate interregional trade and communication in the Andes. These rods are still used by locals and foreigner who hike in the Andes
Inca Empire technology
-But their military technology was limited. Their weapons were made from stones and wood and they only had an infantry.
Initial meeting with Atahualpa (leader of the Incas)
-This [Cajamarca] is where they met Atahualpa. The leader of the Incas refused to convert to Christianity and abandon his beliefs (because the Bible did not speak to him) and he was kidnapped by Pizarro`s troops. Atahualpa had made a mistake by not bringing enough men to protect him from the Conquistadors.
the Spanish kidnap of Atahualpa
- Atahualpa proposed a ransom in return for his liberation. The Incas filled the room where he was detained with gold but Pizarro did not keep his promise to release him.
- Pizarro knew that Atahualpa was so respected that nobody else dared to make decisions in the Inca Empire.
consequences of the Kidnapping of Atahualpa
-Inca society was paralyzed by fear and Pizarro continued to use the emperor until he was ready to conquer Cuzco, the largest city on the empire of the Incas, in 1534 without facing much resistance.
Atahualpa end of rule
-Atahualpa was trialed and condemned to death. He believed that his body needed to remain intact to have an afterlife so he accepted to be baptized in exchange for being strangled to death (instead of being burnt or beheaded by Pizarro’s troops).
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How valuable was the conquest of Cuzco (capital of Inca empire)
-The city of Cuzco is 3,000 meters above sea level in the middle of the Andes. Hence, it was not very useful for the Conquistadors (unlike Tenochtitlan) due to its distance from the Pacific Ocean and its high altitude.
New Capital of Peru
- Pizarro founded the city of Lima, the capital of Peru where he was assassinated in 1541 during a power struggle with other prominent Spaniards who challenged his authority over Peru.
- Lima is on the Pacific coast and it quickly became an important port when the Spaniards discovered precious metals.
Location important resources found by the Spaniards suit à la conquest des Incas
-The mine of Potosi (Bolivia) was especially precious. It contained more silver than the Spaniards could have imagined.
Expanse of the Spanish empire suit à la conquest des Incas
Spain continued to expand its Empire into Colombia and Argentina. More than 200,000 Spaniards moved to the Americas during the 16th Century.
-They created the most complex European empire since Ancient Rome. It was an empire that was tightly controlled by Spanish authorities that produced mainly minerals and crops for the Spanish market.
true or false the Spaniards conquered all of the Incas with no exceptions
-In the meantime, the Incas who lived in remote areas of the Andes such as Machu Picchu managed to avoid the merciless exploitation of the Spaniards (Machu Picchu is an extremely popular destination despite its remoteness. It was discovered only in 1911 by Hiram Bingham of Yale University).
-Finally, the age of discoveries was marked by
the Columbian exchange.
-Contacts with the natives allowed the Europeans to discover new crops such as corn, potatoes, tomatoes, cocoa, peanuts, pumpkins and tobacco (they also got syphilis from the natives). (not lots of sickness cuz not lots of major cities)
-In return, the natives were introduced to deadly European diseases such as smallpox, the plague, influenza… They also discovered firearms, horses, cattle, pigs and rats.
latecomers in the race to the Americas.
-The English were latecomers in the race to the Americas.
Claims on the americas set in 1493
- In 1493, Spain and Portugal already claimed the entirety of the Western Hemisphere with the Treaty of Tordesillas (that was only one year after Christopher Columbus’ first voyage to the Americas).
- This treaty would allow the Portuguese to settle in Brazil and the Spaniards to conquer the other territories between Mexico and Peru (the treaty was approved by Pope Alexander VI).
First English trip to the americas
- In 1497, the Henry VII, the King of England, ignored the treaty of Tordesillas when he sent John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto) to find a northern passage to Asia.
- Cabot failed to find a passage to Asia but he still explored the east coast of Canada. (modern day= Newfoundland)
Compare the British conquest in the years between Cabot and their next attempt and others colonial powers or Europe
- England took more than a century to establish a colony after Cabot’s first voyage (the Tudors were too busy with Spain and Ireland to dedicate resources for exploration of new territories).
- In the meantime, the Portuguese settled in Brazil (led by Cabral in 1500), Jacques Cartier claimed Canada for France and the Spanish conquistadors managed to conquer Mexico (Cortes vs. the Aztecs) and Peru (Pizarro vs. the Incas).
- Moreover, the Spaniards quickly moved north. Ponce de |Leon hoped to discover gold and the fountain of youth. He failed but he claimed Florida for Spain in 1513.
Ponce de |Leon 1513 conquest of Florida elaborated
- In 1519, Coronado ventured north of the Rio Grande River.
- He hoped to find civilizations as wealthy as the Aztecs and the Incas.
- He was disappointed by the Pueblos. Coronado’s anger led to extreme cruelty (because they did not have gold and they were no sufficiently committed to adopting the Christian beliefs of the Spaniards).
- These failing ventures still led Spain to established minor settlements in Florida (1565) and New Mexico (1598) to consolidate their claims to new territories.
The first English attempt to establish a colony in the New World was led by
Sir Walter Raleigh, a friend ;) of Elizabeth I.
Sir Walter Raleigh goal
-Raleigh believed that it was essential for England to limit the growth of the Spanish empire in the Americas.
First colony attempt by the English
-In 1585, Raleigh tried to settle on Roanoke Island off the coast of present-day North Carolina but many colonists returned home after hostilities with natives of Roanoke (i.e., the Croatoans) and failing to find gold.
colony attempt 1.2 by the English
- Britsh settlers returned to Roanoke Island in 1587 but they failed again. England’s war with Spain separated the nascent colony from its motherland.
- The settlers who stayed in Roanoke Island were gone, when desperately needed goods finally arrived from England in 1590 (long after the British navy defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588).
- The fate of the last British settlers of Roanoke Island is still unknown. The “lost colony” remains an unsolved mystery.
