Chapter 22: Industrial Revolution, 1750-1900 Flashcards
spinning jenny
James Hargreaves invented this machine, which reduced the time needed to spin yarn and weave cloth by allowing a weaver to spin more than one thread at a time.
water frame
It was patented by Richard Arkwright and used waterpower to drive the spinning wheel. It was more efficient than a single person’s labor, so this mechanization doomed the household textile cottage industry; textile production was moved to factories big enough to house these bulky machines. Arkwright was thus considered the father of the factory system.
James Hargreaves
James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny, which reduced the time needed to spin yarn and weave cloth by allowing a weaver to spin more than one thread at a time.
Richard Arkwright
Richard Arkwright patented the water frame, which used waterpower to drive the spinning wheel. It was more efficient than a single person’s labor, so this mechanization doomed the household textile cottage industry; textile production was moved to factories big enough to house these bulky machines. Arkwright was thus considered the father of the factory system.
Eli Whitney
He was a man best known for developing the cotton gin who also created a system of interchangeable parts for manufacturing firearms for the US military. If a particular component of a machine were to break, the broken component could easily be replaced with a new, identical part by an unskilled worker. This led directly to a division of labor among workers where each worker specializes in a specific task.
interchangeable parts
Eli Whitney created a system of interchangeable parts for manufacturing firearms for the US military. If a particular component of a machine were to break, the broken component could easily be replaced with a new, identical part by an unskilled worker.
steam engine
The version of the steam engine made by James Watt provided an inexpensive way to harness coal power to create steam, which in turn generated energy for machinery in textile factories.
James Watt
The version of the steam engine made by James Watt provided an inexpensive way to harness coal power to create steam, which in turn generated energy for machinery in textile factories.
steamship
The development of the steamship allowed steam-powered ships to travel quickly upstream on rivers instead of having to sail up or be towed by people and animals along the shore. Steamships revolutionized transportation on lakes and the oceans because ship captains were no longer dependent on winds for power.
crop rotation
During an agricultural revolution predating the Industrial Revolution, new methods caused an increase in productivity. One of them was crop rotation, or the rotation of different crops in and out of a field each year, increasing food production.
seed drill
During an agricultural revolution predating the Industrial Revolution, new methods caused an increase in productivity. One of them was the seed drill, a device that efficiently places seeds in a designated spot in the ground, increasing food production.
seaways
Britain had many geographical advantages in the process of industrialization because it was located on the Atlantic Ocean with its many seaways. The country was well placed to import raw materials and export finished goods through these seaways.
raw materials
Britain was well placed on the Atlantic Ocean to import raw materials.
fossil fuel
Fossil fuels are energy sources derived from plant and animal remains. Coal is a fossil fuel that was burned to power the steam engine and to separate iron from its ore.
Transcontinental Railroad
This railroad system connected the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and facilitated US industrial growth.
second industrial revolution
While the first industrial revolution focused on inventions in STI (steam power, textiles, and iron) the second industrial revolution focused on developments in SCEP (steel, chemicals, electronics, precision machinery). The US, GB, and Germany were key players in this second industrial revolution.
Trans-Siberian Railroad
This railroad stretched from Moscow to the Pacific Ocean, allowing Russia to trade more easily with East Asian countries like China and Japan.
Bessemer process
The Bessemer process involves blowing air through molten pig iron to create steel. This was the first inexpensive mass production of steel.
urbanization
Industrialization increased urbanization or the growth of cities. Because urban areas grew rapidly and with little planning by governments, people damaged the environment and created inhumane living conditions for the poorest residents in the area. Working families often crowded into shoddily constructed tenement apartment buildings, often owned by factory owners themselves, located in slums. Industrial by-products like polluted water supplies and open sewers in these slums caused cholera, dysentery, and tuberculosis.
Protestant work ethic
The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism was written by a German sociologist named Max Weber. In it, he suggested that in countries influenced by Reformation leader John Calvin, people worked hard because prosperity was a sign of God’s favor, and this gave them assurance for salvation. In addition, people looked down upon showy displays of wealth, so they saved their money. The combination of hard workers and ample capital for new investments provided ideal conditions for capitalism.
Meiji
Under the Meiji, Japan ended its self-imposed isolation from the rest of the world. Japanese leaders realized that they had to industrialize in order to protect the nation, as the Western world had developed advanced navy and armaments.
Otto von Bismarck
Under the leadership of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Germany started workers’ accident compensation insurance, unemployment insurance, and old age pensions for employees. He was only somewhat interested in the health and security concerns, because he was more concerned that if his government didn’t address these problems, socialists and more radical citizens would demand stronger government action that would lead to social unrest.
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution was when rapid industrialization occurred. Production was increasingly mechanized and social changes occurred due to this. While the first industrial revolution focused on inventions in STI (steam power, textiles, and iron) the second industrial revolution focused on developments in SCEP (steel, chemicals, electronics, precision machinery). The US, GB, and Germany were key players in this second industrial revolution.
industrialization
This term refers not only to the increased mechanization of production, but also to the social changes that accompanied the shifts of the Industrial Revolution.
cottage industry
Also called “putting-out,” this system involved merchants who provided raw cotton to women who spun it into finished cloth in their own homes. Though spinning was hard work and didn’t pay well, cottage industries gave women weavers a degree of independence whilst they could stay close to their children. However, the cottage industry was slow and inventors demanded faster production, spurring the development of technologies that turned out cloth in more efficient ways.
putting-out industry
Also called the “cottage industry,” this system involved merchants who provided raw cotton to women who spun it into finished cloth in their own homes. Though spinning was hard work and didn’t pay well, cottage industries gave women weavers a degree of independence whilst they could stay close to their children. However, the cottage industry was slow and inventors demanded faster production, spurring the development of technologies that turned out cloth in more efficient ways.
factory system
Richard Arkwright was considered the father of the factory system because of his invention of the water frame, which used waterpower to drive the spinning wheel. This eliminated the need for the household textile industry, as textile production was moved to factories big enough to house these bulky machines.
division of labor
Eli Whitney’s system of interchangeable parts led to standardized tools which allowed unskilled workers to attach a particular piece to a product. This led directly to a division of labor among workers where each worker specializes in a specific task. Henry Ford would expand this concept of the division of labor by developing the moving assembly line to manufacture his Model T automobiles.
assembly line
Henry Ford would expand the concept of the division of labor by developing the assembly line to manufacture his Model T automobiles.
agricultural revolution
During an agricultural revolution predating the Industrial Revolution, new methods caused an increase in productivity. One of them was crop rotation, or the rotation of different crops in and out of a field each year. Another was the seed drill, a device that efficiently places seeds in a designated spot in the ground, increasing food production. As nations industrialized, more food was available, so their populations grew.
enclosure movement
Although English towns had traditionally allowed farmers to cultivate land or tend sheep on government property known as the “commons,” this custom ended with the enclosure movement, when the gov’t fenced off the commons and gave exclusive use of it to the people who paid for them. Many farmers thus became destitute and had to move to urban areas like Manchester and Liverpool, where they became the new industrial workplace.
Manchester
Although English towns had traditionally allowed farmers to cultivate land or tend sheep on government property known as the “commons,” this custom ended with the enclosure movement, when the gov’t fenced off the commons and gave exclusive use of it to the people who paid for them. Many farmers thus became destitute and had to move to urban areas like Manchester and Liverpool, where they became the new industrial workplace.
Liverpool
Although English towns had traditionally allowed farmers to cultivate land or tend sheep on government property known as the “commons,” this custom ended with the enclosure movement, when the gov’t fenced off the commons and gave exclusive use of it to the people who paid for them. Many farmers thus became destitute and had to move to urban areas like Manchester and Liverpool, where they became the new industrial workplace.
capital
Due to the large wealth that British capitalists had accumulated from the trans-Atlantic slave trade, enough had excess capital, or money available to invest in businesses.
human capital
Human capital can be defined as the workforce, and it was a key factor in America’s success. More specifically, this human capital primarily consisted of immigrants from Europe and East Asia, who, in addition to rural migrants, provided factory labor.
consumerism
A culture of consumerism developed among the working and middle classes in Britain. Consumption needed to keep up with production through advertisements which promoted spending disposable income on nonessential goods.
corporations
A corporation is a business made to minimize risk. It is chartered by a government as a legal entity owned by stockholders, or individuals who buy partial ownership directly from the company when it is formed or later through a stock market. Some corporations became so powerful that they formed a monopoly and controlled all aspects of a specific business and eliminated all competition.
stockholders
Stockholders are individuals who buy partial ownership directly from a company when it is formed or later through a stock market. They might receive sums of money called dividends from a corporation when it makes a profit. If a corporation experiences a loss or goes bankrupt, the stockholders aren’t liable for the losses, and the most that they can lose is what they paid for the stock in the first place.
stock market
Stockholders could buy partial ownership directly from the company when it is formed or later through a stock market.
monopoly
Some corporations become so powerful that they form a monopoly, which means that they control all aspects of a specific business and eliminate all competition.
The Wealth of Nations
This was a book published by Adam Smith which is considered a foundational text in support of capitalism and the establishment of private entrepreneurship. He describes his theory of the “invisible hand” of the market; if businesses were allowed to operate in their own interests, society in general would benefit. Though he recognized the need for some gov’t regulations, his ideas were a precursor to the laissez-faire philosophy, which opposed nearly all gov’t regulations that limited business.
Adam Smith
Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations, which is considered a foundational text in support of capitalism and the establishment of private entrepreneurship. He describes his theory of the “invisible hand” of the market; if businesses were allowed to operate in their own interests, society in general would benefit. Though he recognized the need for some gov’t regulations, his ideas were a precursor to the laissez-faire philosophy, which opposed nearly all gov’t regulations that limited business.
capitalism
Capitalism is the economic system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners rather than the government.
laissez-faire
Though Adam Smith recognized the need for some gov’t regulations in The Wealth of Nations, his ideas were a precursor to the laissez-faire philosophy, which opposed nearly all gov’t regulations that limited business.
John Stuart Mill
John Stuart Mill was a champion of social reforms who argued that laissez-faire capitalism could be inhumane to workers. He advocated a philosophy called utilitarianism, which sought “the greatest good for the greatest number of people;” though utilitarians did not want to end capitalism, they wanted to address growing problems.
utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill was a champion of social reforms who argued that laissez-faire capitalism could be inhumane to workers. He advocated a philosophy called utilitarianism, which sought “the greatest good for the greatest number of people;” though utilitarians did not want to end capitalism, they wanted to address growing problems.
socialism
This is a system in which major resources and industries would be owned by the workers or the government on behalf of all people. Some bought large tracts of land where they could establish new, ideal communities, but because they hoped to start society anew, they were criticized as utopians.
utopia
Many socialists were criticized as utopians because they hoped to start society anew in a system where major resources and industries were owned by the workers or the gov’t on behalf of all people.
Karl Marx
Karl Marx was a German scholar and writer who criticized utopian socialism for escaping problems. Instead, he and Friedrich Engels promoted Marxist socialism, which would become known as communism, under The Communist Manifesto. The book divided society into two basic classes: the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The proletariat was the working class who worked for little compensation since the middle class bourgeoisie owned the means of production. They argued for the abolishment of these classes and for a single class to emerge so that class discrimination does not happen. Marx claimed that the end of capitalism would bring equality and justice to all.
Friedrich Engels
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels promoted Marxist socialism, which would become known as communism, under The Communist Manifesto. The book divided society into two basic classes: the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The proletariat was the working class who worked for little compensation since the middle class bourgeoisie owned the means of production. They argued for the abolishment of these classes and for a single class to emerge so that class discrimination does not happen.
The Communist Manifesto
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote The Communist Manifesto. The book divided society into two basic classes: the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The proletariat was the working class who worked for little compensation since the middle class bourgeoisie owned the means of production.
means of production
The Communist Manifesto divided society into two basic classes: the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The proletariat was the working class who worked for little compensation since the middle class bourgeoisie owned means of production like machines, factories, mines, and land. Marx claimed that the end of capitalism would bring equality and justice to all.
communism
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels promoted Marxist socialism, which would become known as communism, under The Communist Manifesto. The book divided society into two basic classes: the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The proletariat was the working class who worked for little compensation since the middle class bourgeoisie owned the means of production. They argued for the abolishment of these classes and for a single class to emerge so that class discrimination does not happen. Marx claimed that the end of capitalism would bring equality and justice to all.
tenement
Because urban areas grew rapidly and with little planning by governments, people damaged the environment and created inhumane living conditions for the poorest residents in the area. Working families often crowded into shoddily constructed tenement apartment buildings, often owned by factory owners themselves, located in slums. Industrial by-products like polluted water supplies and open sewers in these slums caused cholera, dysentery, and tuberculosis.
slums
Slums were areas of urban cities where low-income families were forced to live, often inside of shoddily constructed tenement apartment buildings which were owned by factory owners themselves. Industrial by-products like polluted water supplies and open sewers in these slums caused cholera, dysentery, and tuberculosis.
working class
As industrialization spread, new classes of society emerged in Britain. At the bottom of the social hierarchy were the working class slum dwellers who worked in factories and coal mines. Though they helped construct goods more rapidly, they never single-handedly completed a product due to the system of interchangeable parts and division of labor. In comparison to the craft workers and artisans of earlier generations, workers were low skilled and therefore easily replaceable, so managers paid them low wages.
white-collar
White-collar jobs, those held by office workers, emerged because people with education and sophisticated skills had to manage production of goods. Most white-collar workers were literate and many could be considered middle class. This middle class included factory and office managers, small business owners, and professionals.
captains of industry
At the top of the new class hierarchy were the newly wealthy industrialists and owners of large corporations, called captains of industry, who soon overshadowed the landed aristocracy as the power brokers of modern society.
cult of domesticity
Advertising and consumer culture in the late 1800s contributed to a cult of domesticity that idealized the female homemaker. Advertisers encouraged women to buy household products that would supposedly make the home a husband’s place of respite. Pamphlets instructed middle-class women to be pious, submissive, pure, and domestic.
labor unions
Labor unions are organizations of workers that advocate for the right to bargain over certain matters with employers and put the resulting agreements in a contract. These matters included the issues of dangerous and unsanitary working conditions, low wages, and long hours. Labor unions grew more popular as time passed and they improved workers’ lives by winning minimum wage laws, limits on the number of hours worked, overtime pay, and the establishment of the 5-day work week.
proletariat
The proletariat was the working class in communist theory who worked for little compensation since the middle class bourgeoisie owned the means of production.
bourgeoisie
The proletariat was the working class who worked for little compensation, while the middle class bourgeoisie owned the means of production.
