Chapter 21: The Enlightenment, Nationalism, and Revolution Flashcards

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1
Q

Italian Peninsula

A

Cavour, the classical liberalist prime minister of the Piedmont-Sardinia, led the drive to unite the entire Italian Peninsula under the only native dynasty, the House of Savoy. At the time, the region was divided among a patchwork of kingdoms and city-states, and most people spoke regional languages rather than Italian.

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2
Q

immigration

A

The movement of people into a country from a different country. Many Italians immigrated in the late 19th century to the US and Argentina, where the constitution of 1853 specifically encouraged immigration.

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3
Q

conservatism

A

A particularly popular novel school of thought amongst European rulers regarding how to improve society which pairs with romanticism but opposes socialism and liberalism. Conservatives tried to quell revolutionary change.

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4
Q

Deism

A

The belief that a divinity simply set natural laws in motion and then didn’t interfere or cause miracles in the world.

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5
Q

romanticism

A

A new school of thought on how to improve society which pairs with conservatism but opposes socialism and liberalism. Romantics were fascinated with nature, the exotic, and emotion. They turned to instinct & sensitivity for inspiration rather than to reason. They were apolitical and focused on the history and distinctive traits of each culture. Famous ones include Samuel Coleridge and Jose Hernandez.

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6
Q

nationalism

A

A feeling of intense loyalty to others who share one’s language and culture. The idea that people who share a culture should also share a gov’t threatened to destroy all of the multi-ethnic empires in Europe.

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7
Q

Mary Wollstonecraft

A

She was an English philosopher who wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.

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8
Q

Voltaire

A

Francois-Marie Arouet, whose pen name was Voltaire, wrote the social satire Candide. After being exiled to England for 3 years due to a conflict with a member of the French aristocracy, he developed an appreciation for its constitutional monarchy and regard for civil rights. He brought these ideas back to FR, where he campaigned for religious liberty and judicial reform. His idea of religious liberty influenced the US Constitution.

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9
Q

salons

A

Social gatherings of European intellectuals which took place in the homes of the rich and famous. Some women, as hostesses, made their marks on the 18th century by bringing together artists, politicians, philosophers, and popular writers who took the progressive ideas of the Enlightenment to the public.

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10
Q

Deists

A

They argued that God created the world and then sat back to observe its movements. They believed that God’s natural laws could be discovered by scientific inquiry. Their relationship to God is consequently more impersonal and theoretical than those of Christians who focused on miracles and faith. Nevertheless, many of the Deists viewed regular church attendance as an important social obligation and moral guide.

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11
Q

liberals

A

After the 1824 Mexican constitution, which guaranteed basic civil rights but did not address serious issues of inequitable land distribution, widespread poverty, the status of Mexican Indians, and inequitable educational access, the political environment featured liberals calling for reforms and conservatives opposing them. The liberals were influenced by the FR and US political models, stressing the importance of individual rights and opposing the centralized state model of gov’t. They wanted to limit the role of the Roman Catholic Church in politics and in education.

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12
Q

Samuel Coleridge

A

This British poet wrote the Romantic poem “Kubla Khan,” which he claimed was the product of an opium-induced dream.

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13
Q

Jose Hernandez

A

He published Martin Fierro, an epic poem that romanticized the Argentine gaucho (a rough equivalent of the North American cowboy).

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14
Q

First, Second, Third Estates

A

France had social and legal classes separated into three estates. The First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) paid almost no direct tax and they resisted calls that they pay any more. The burden of taxation fell on the Third Estate (common people) of peasants, urban workers, and the bourgeoisie, or middle class.

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15
Q

bourgeoisie

A

The middle class in the Third Estate of the French social and legal system.

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16
Q

Tennis Court Oath

A

After being outvoted 2-1 in the Estates-General meeting of 1789, the Third Estate would declare its intentions of reforming the voting process so that a National Assembly could grant one vote per member rather than one vote per estate. Representatives from the Third Estate supported this revolutionary idea with the Tennis Court Oath, which also called for a constitution limiting the king’s power.

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17
Q

Bastille

A

Though the National Assembly began meeting in Paris, the King threatened to arrest the leaders, so angry crowds rioted in Paris and elsewhere in FR. A crowd in Paris stormed the Bastille, a former prison that still symbolized the abuses of the monarchy and the corrupt aristocracy.

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18
Q

Olympe de Gouges

A

This FR playwright was sent to the guillotine for writing the Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen, which alienated the male dominated leadership of the FR Revolution. She had asserted that FR women should be given the same political rights as FR men.

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19
Q

primogeniture

A

The right of an eldest son to inherit all his parents’ property, which was prohibited in France by the Directory.

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20
Q

Marrons

A

Escaped slaves who revolted against their white masters, killing them and burning their houses, during the Haitian Revolution.

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21
Q

creoles

A

They were born of European parents in the Americas. They are well-educated and aware of the ideas behind the revolutions in North America and FR. They considered themselves superior to the mestizos, who were born of European and Indian parents. Many wanted independence from Spain because of the country’s mercantilist policies, which required that the colonists buy manufactured goods only from Spain and sell their products only to Spain.

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22
Q

mestizos

A

Considered inferior to the creoles, who were born of European parents in the Americas, the mestizos were born of European and Indian parents.

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23
Q

Peninsulares

A

They were colonists who were born in Spain or Portugal, who were superior to everyone.

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24
Q

Zionism

A

The desire of Jews to reestablish an independent homeland where their ancestors had lived in the Middle East. After centuries of battling anti-Semitism and pogroms, many European Jews had concluded that living in peace and security wasn’t a realistic hope. To be safe, they needed to control their own land, and Austro-Hungarian Jew Theodor Herzl led this movement.

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25
Q

Emile Zola

A

Alfred Dreyfus, a FR military officer who was Jewish, was convicted of treason against the FR gov’t. However, people discovered that the conviction had been based on forged documents, so anti-Semitism was the reason for his imprisonment. The Dreyfus Affair inspired a worldwide outcry and raised support for Zionism. French novelist Emile Zola took up Dreyfus’ cause, spreading the news.

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26
Q

Edmund Burke

A

An English statesman who liked French thinker Joseph de Maistre, Burke was a conservative against the tide of Enlightenment thinking by viewing revolutions as bloody, disruptive, and unlikely to yield positive results. However, the desire of common people for constitutional gov’t and democratic practices erupted in revolutions throughout the 19th century.

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27
Q

John Locke

A

Like philosopher Thomas Hobbes of Leviathan, John Locke of Two Treatises of Gov’t, viewed political life as the result of a social contract. Locke argued that the social contract implied the right, and even the responsibility, of citizens to revolt against unjust gov’t. He also argued that each man had a natural right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of property. He proposed that children were born with minds like “blank slates” waiting to be filled with knowledge, arguing that the environment shapes people.

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28
Q

social contract

A

Established by Thomas Hobbes, social contract theory states that people must give up certain rights to an absolutist monarch in exchange for the protection of living under law and order. Alternatively, John Locke argued that the social contract implied the right, and even the responsibility, of citizens to revolt against unjust gov’t.

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29
Q

Baron Montesquieu

A

A major French Enlightenment philosopher who wrote The Spirit of the Laws, which praised the British gov’tal use of checks on power by means of its Parliament. He influenced the American system, which adopted his ideas by separating its executive branch from its legislative branch and from its judicial branch.

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30
Q

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

A

One of his early works was Emile or On Education in which he laid out his ideas on child-rearing and education. A later work titled The Social Contract stated the obligation of a sovereign to carry out the General Will of the people. He was an optimist who believed that society could improve. He gave revolutionaries of the late 18th century hope of establishing better gov’ts.

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31
Q

Thomas Paine

A

He was militant in his defense of Deism in his book The Age of Reason. Though Common Sense made him renowned in America for advocating liberty from Britain, his anti-church writings damaged much of his popularity. Deists believe that God created the world and sat back to watch it move by its own natural laws, so their relationship to God is consequently more impersonal and theoretical than those of Christians who focused on miracles and faith.

32
Q

The Age of Reason

A

Thomas Paine was militant in his defense of Deism in this book. Though Common Sense made him renowned in America for advocating liberty from Britain, his anti-church writings damaged much of his popularity. Deists believe that God created the world and sat back to watch it move by its own natural laws, so their relationship to God is consequently more impersonal and theoretical than those of Christians who focused on miracles and faith.

33
Q

Declaration of Independence

A

[06.04.1776] Thomas Jefferson penned this document, which stated the philosophy behind the Patriots’ fight against British troops in America. He used John Locke’s phrase of “unalienable rights,” which, to Jefferson, were the rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

34
Q

United States Constitution

A

The Articles of Confederation were too weak of a central gov’t, so many American leaders called for a stronger central gov’t under the US Constitution. It was ratified by the states in 1788 and is the oldest written constitution still in use in the world today. It created a republic with a bicameral legislature (House and Senate), an executive who was elected by the people through the Electoral College, and a judicial branch. These three branches represent the separation of powers by Montesquieu, which provide checks and balances on one another’s power.

35
Q

separation of powers

A

French writer Montesquieu described how the ideal gov’t should have a separation of powers between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. These ideas were implemented into the US Constitution, which includes such branches, under a system of checks and balances where each branch can check and balance the power of the other.

36
Q

checks and balances

A

Each branch of the American gov’t—legislative, executive, and judicial—provides checks and balances on the other’s powers.

37
Q

Declaration of the Rights of Man

A

Following the Revolution was this document which abolished feudalism in France. It granted basic human rights to French citizens. However, one major problem for the new gov’t was its creation of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, which abolished special privileges of the Catholic Church in FR and put it under state control.

38
Q

Code Napoleon

A

This was Napoleon Bonaparte’s new law code, in which all citizens were equal, given trial by jury, and had freedom of religion. It became the model for other law codes he imposed on lands he conquered.

39
Q

balance of power

A

The Congress of Vienna marked the resurgence of conservative forces that tried to keep peace by maintaining a balance of power among European nations and by opposing popular upheavals.

40
Q

philosophes

A

[1700s] A new group of thinkers & writers who explored social, political, and economic theories in new ways, popularizing concepts that they felt followed rationally upon those of the [1600s] scientific thinkers. These writers included Thomas Jefferson and Ben Franklin, Scot Adam Smith, Mary Wollstonecraft, and Frenchmen Diderot, Baron Montesqieu, Voltaire, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. These thinkers wrote extensively with one another, some monarchs, and the reading public throughout the Western world.

41
Q

Zionism

A

Zionism was the desire of Jews to reestablish an independent homeland where their ancestors had lived in the Middle East. After centuries of battling anti-Semitism and pogroms, many European Jews had concluded that living in peace and security wasn’t a realistic hope. To be safe, they needed to control their own land, and Austro-Hungarian Jew Theodor Herzl led this movement.

42
Q

Napoleon Bonaparte

A

[ruled 1799-1814] Napoleon was an “enlightened despot” who made a series of popular reforms to FR, despite how he was despotic in his use of internal spies and control of gov’t. And after his military failure in the Peninsular Campaign and in Russia, he showed that he could be defeated, so the allied forces of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and GB attacked FR → Napoleon abdicated.

[TCSAMP]

  1. He made the tax burden more equal than it had been under the monarchy.
  2. Code Napoleon made it so that all citizens were equal, and given trial by jury and freedom of religion. It became the model for other law codes he imposed on lands he conquered.
  3. He set up a public school system.
  4. He sponsored archaeological expeditions in Egypt and elsewhere.
  5. He established the French Legion of Honor (an honor society for those who served FR well) and promoted gov’t and military officials according to merit rather than familial connections.
  6. He made peace with the Pope (Concordat of 1801) who had been distanced from FR by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
43
Q

King Louis XVI

A

[ruled 1774-1792] He couldn’t raise more money to finance the large and inefficient French gov’t, so he called for the Estates-General to meet in 1789 for the first time in years. After being outvoted 2-1, the Third Estate would declare its intentions of reforming the voting process so that a National Assembly could grant one vote per member rather than one vote per estate. Representatives from the Third Estate supported this revolutionary idea with the Tennis Court Oath, which also called for a constitution limiting the king’s power.

44
Q

Maximilien Robespierre

A

He was the leader of the Committee of Public Safety, which sought to quell opposition to FR by imposing the death penalty on opponents. They also started the levee en masse, or mass male conscription into military service, which grew from the idea that the democratic citizen, who, while assured of certain rights, was also given certain responsibilities, like fighting for the security of the nation.

45
Q

Tsar Alexander I

A

Napoleon invaded Russia five years into the Peninsular Campaign. Though he was first successful, facing victory at the Battle of Borodino and occupying the Russian capital, Tsar Alexander I refused to sign a peace treaty and the Russian Army simply retreated farther east. Napoleon realized his army would never chase down the Russian army and destroy it, so the FR began to retreat; however, the harsh Russian winter set in and killed many FR forces due to hunger, cold, and disease.

46
Q

Toussaint L’Ouverture

A

Living in FR-controlled St. Dominique, this man was a former slave who led escaped slaves called Maroons to revolt against their white masters, killing them and burning their houses. FR promised to grant Haiti independence if he would abdicate, but then Napoleon had him captured, arrested, and executed. Still, he succeeded in establishing the abolition of slavery in Haiti and set Haiti on the road to complete independence from FR.

47
Q

Miguel Hidalgo

A

He was a Mexican village priest who called on Indians and mestizos for support in his [1810] drive for Mexican independence from SP. Hidalgo and his followers won several battles, but the previously sympathetic creoles turned on him when the revolutionaries began attacking and looting their property. As the owners of large ranches and mines, the creoles eventually supported the SP authorities, who came to represent law and order. The Spanish captured and then executed him.

48
Q

Benito Juarez

A

He was an Indian lawyer from poverty who served 5 terms as Mexico’s president. He broke the patterns of military leadership & creole rule, spearheading a liberal revolt called La Reforma, which resulted in a new constitution from Mexico in 1854. He also limited the power of the Catholic Church & Mexican army. The FR forced Juarez to flee to Mexico City, suspended the constitution, and installed the Austrian Archduke Maximilian as emperor of Mexico. However, Juarez organized resistance and drove out the FR army in 1867, aided by diplomatic pressure on FR from the US, which also wanted FR out of Mexico. Maximilian was captured and shot. Juarez continued to be reelected president until his death.

49
Q

Archduke Maximilian

A

The French wanted to control Mexico, and sent this Austrian to become the emperor of Mexico in replacement of Benito Juarez. However, Juarez organized resistance and drove out the FR army in 1867, aided by diplomatic pressure on FR from the US, which also wanted the FR out of Mexico. Maximilian was captured and shot.

50
Q

Jose de San Martin

A

He was a creole in South America who defeated royalists to establish an independent gov’t. He led troops from his native Argentina over the Andes Mountains to set up independent republics in Chile and Bolivia. He was hailed as the liberator of Argentina and the “Protector of Peru.”

51
Q

Simon Bolivar

A

He was a creole born in Venezuela from Spanish aristocratic lineage. Using his inherited wealth, he pushed for Enlightenment ideals in Latin America, stirred by a desire for independence from Spain. He was a liberal who believed in a free market and abolition. After considerable military success in Latin America fighting the Spanish, his forces achieved the formation of a large area that he called Gran Colombia, which he hoped would become an enlightened federation similar to the US. He would be president of this area for 11 years before it separated due to its size and pressure from separatists into Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador.

52
Q

Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour

A

He was a classical liberal who was Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardina. He helped unify Italy as a constitutional monarchy. At the time, the region was divided among a patchwork of kingdoms and city-states, and most people spoke regional languages rather than Italian. He believed in the practical politics of reality, called realpolitik, in addition to classical liberalism. He maneuvered Napoleon into a war with Austria in the hopes that it would weaken Austrian influence on the Italian Peninsula, but Napoleon would back out because he feared the wrath of the Pope, who was not eager for his Papal States to come under the control of a central Italian gov’t. Giuseppe Mazzini argued for the radical romantic revolutionary philosophy of Italian resurgence which inspired Cavour. Cavour also aligned with the Red Shirts military force, which was fighting farther south in the Kingdom of Naples, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi.

53
Q

Giuseppe Mazzini

A

He was a man arguing for the radical romantic revolutionary philosophy of Italian resurgence who inspired Cavour.

54
Q

Giuseppe Garibaldi

A

Cavour also aligned with the Red Shirts military force, which was fighting farther south in the Kingdom of Naples, led by this man.

55
Q

Otto von Bismarck

A

He was a Prussian practical politician like Cavour who used nationalist feelings to engineer three wars to bring about German unification. He manipulated different nations to fight with or against Prussia. Austria and Prussia fought against Denmark. Austria fought against Prussia. France fought against Prussia. In each of these three wars, Prussia won, and thus gained territory. He founded the new German Empire, made of many territories gained from the wars, including Alsace-Lorraine, a rich area long held by FR on the border between FR and the new Germany.

56
Q

levee en masse

A

Maximilien Robespierre’s Committee of Public Safety started the levee en masse, or mass male conscription into military service, which grew from the idea that the democratic citizen, who, while assured of certain rights, was also given certain responsibilities, like fighting for the security of the nation.

57
Q

Congress of Vienna

A

[1814] The allied forces of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and GB attacked FR, seeing Napoleon’s military failure in the Peninsular Campaign and in Russia. [1815] After the Congress of Vienna, the European powers led by Klemens von Metternich, the conservative prime minister of Austria, exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba. The Congress of Vienna marked the resurgence of conservative forces that opposed nationalist movements and revolutions which tried to keep peace by maintaining a balance of power among European nations and by opposing popular upheavals.

58
Q

Klemens von Metternich

A

The allied forces of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and GB attacked FR, seeing Napoleon’s military failure in the Peninsular Campaign and in Russia. [1815] After the Congress of Vienna, the European powers led by Klemens von Metternich, the conservative prime minister of Austria, exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba.

59
Q

Haiti

A

Haiti was a sugar and coffee colony of FR. It is an island on the western end of the island of St. Dominique, which would become the first nation to abolish slavery in the western hemisphere after the slave revolts led by Toussaint L’Ouverture.

60
Q

conservatives

A

The 1824 Mexican constitution guaranteed basic civil rights but did not address serious issues of inequitable land distribution, widespread poverty, the status of Mexican Indians, and inequitable educational access. The political environment featured liberals calling for reforms and conservatives opposing them. Conservatives favored a centralized state in alliance with the Roman Catholic Church.

61
Q

La Reforma

A

Mexican president Benito Juarez led a liberal revolt called La Reforma, which resulted in a new constitution from Mexico in 1854.

62
Q

realpolitik

A

The practical politics of reality, which Cavour, prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, believed in.

63
Q

Dreyfus Affair

A

Alfred Dreyfus, a FR military officer who was Jewish, was convicted of treason against the FR gov’t. However, people discovered that the conviction had been based on forged documents, so anti-Semitism was the reason for his imprisonment. The Dreyfus Affair inspired a worldwide outcry and raised support for Zionism. French novelist Emile Zola took up Dreyfus’ cause, spreading the news.

64
Q

socialism

A

A new school of thought on how to improve society which pairs with liberalism but opposes conservatism and romanticism. It refers to a system of public ownership or direct worker ownership of the means of production.

65
Q

physiocrats

A

The new economic thinkers were called this. They included Adam Smith, wrote The Wealth of Nations, and argued for laissez-faire free trade over mercantilism.

66
Q

Adam Smith

A

He was a physiocrat who argued in The Wealth of Nations for laissez-faire economics, which highlighted free trade instead of mercantilism. Laissez-faire is the FR word for “leave alone,” meaning that gov’t should minimize intervention into the economy. While he did support some regulations and taxes, he believed that everyone would be better off if the economic marketplace regulated itself following the laws of supply and demand. He also said that each person should act according to the dictates of their morals, with the result that good would filter through all of society.

67
Q

The Wealth of Nations

A

In this book, physiocrat Adam Smith argued for laissez-faire economics, which highlighted free trade instead of mercantilism. Laissez-faire is the FR word for “leave alone,” meaning that gov’t should minimize intervention into the economy.

68
Q

laissez-faire

A

Adam Smith coined this term, which is the FR word for “leave alone,” meaning that gov’t should minimize intervention into the economy.

69
Q

utopian socialists

A

People who felt that society could be channeled into positive directions by setting up ideal communities. While they did not believe that gov’ts could set up these ideal communities, they believed strongly in their own ability to do so. Each had a different vision and while their experiments failed, each left a mark on history. Some include Claude Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, and Louis Blanc.

70
Q

Claude Henri de Saint-Simon

A

He was a utopian socialist who advocated strongly for public works that would provide employment. He conceived the idea of building the Suez Canal in Egypt, a project that the FR gov’t eventually created.

71
Q

Charles Fourier

A

He was a utopian socialist who identified some 810 passions that, when encouraged, would make work more enjoyable and workers less tired. One of his ideas was changing tasks frequently to prevent boredom. He also argued for an extension of women’s liberties. He believed a fundamental principle of utopia was harmonious living in communities rather than the class struggle that Karl Marx’s thinking provokes.

72
Q

Robert Owen

A

He was a utopian socialist who established utopian communities at New Lanark in Scotland and New Harmony in the US, where he insisted on providing some education for child workers.

73
Q

New Lanark

A

This was a utopian community in Scotland which was created by Robert Owen. In it, he insisted on providing some education for child workers.

74
Q

New Harmony

A

This was a utopian community in the US which was created by Robert Owen. In it, he insisted on providing some education for child workers.

75
Q

Louis Blanc

A

He was a utopian socialist who worked to get France to set up national workshops.

76
Q

Fabian Society

A

Socialists groups like the Fabian Society formed in England, who were gradual socialists. They favored reforming industrial society by parliamentary means, like HG Wells, Virginia Woolf, and George Bernard Shaw. Many gov’ts, including GB, FR, and the Scandinavian countries, would be influenced by socialist principles.

77
Q

classical liberalism

A

Classical liberalism was more influential than the Fabian Society. They were mostly professional people or intelligentsia, believing firmly in natural rights, constitutional gov’t, laissez-faire economics, and less spending on standing armies and established churches. In Britain, classical liberalists pursued changes in Parliament to reflect changing population patterns so that new industrial cities would have equal parliamentary representation.