Chapter 20: Carbohydrate Biosynthesis in Plants and Bacteria Flashcards
- Anabolic pathways are generally _____ rather than _____
- Catabolism and anabolism proceed _____ in a dynamic steady state, so the energy yielding degradation of cellular components is counterbalanced by biosynthetic processes
- reductive, oxidative
- simultaneously
Photosynthetic Carbohydrate Synthesis
- The synthesis of carbohydrates in animal cells always employs precursors having at least _____ carbons, all of which are less oxidized than the carbon in _____.
- Plants and photosynthetic microorganisms, by contrast, can synthesize carbohydrates from _____ and _____, reducing _____ at the expense of the energy and reducing power furnished by _____ and _____ generated by the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis
- three, CO2
- CO2, water, CO2,
- ATP, NADPH
CO2 assimilation
the conversion of CO2 to simple (reduced) organic compounds
CO2 fixation, carbon fixation
- the specific reaction in which CO2 is incorporated (fixed) into a three-carbon organic compound, the triose phosphate 3-phosphoglycerate
- the precursor of more complex biomolecules, including sugars, polysaccharides, and the metabolites
- all carbon-containing compounds of the plant cell are synthesized from triose
- The light-driven synthesis of ATP and NADPH provides energy and reducing power for the fixation of CO2 into trioses
plastids
- where most of the biosynthetic activities in plants (including CO2 assimilation) occur
- a family of self-reproducing organelles bounded by a double membrane
- has a small genome that encodes some of their proteins
- most other proteins are imported into plastids
- reproduce by binary fission
- genome is a single circular DNA molecule
- they use their own enzymes and ribosomes to synthesize the proteins encoded by that genome
plastids: chloroplasts
- sites of CO2 assimilation
- enzymes for this process are in the strom
plastids: Amyloplasts
- colorless plastids
- have no internal membranes
- analogous to the photosynthetic membranes (thylakoids) of chloroplasts
- packed with starch granules
plastids: proplastids
- has not internal membrane
- colourless and small
- It is from where plastids are derived
interconversions of plastids
- A mature chloroplast has extensive internal membranes
- The internal membranes can be lost, converting a mature chloroplast into a proplastid
- Proplastid gives rise to a pre-granal plastid and then a mature chloroplast
- Proplastids in nonphotosynthetic tissues (such as root) give rise to amyloplasts
Calvin cycle, photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle
summary
- Anabolic
- Occurs in the stroma
- Carbon enters the Calvin cycle in the form of CO2, and it’s reduced to carbohydrates, leaveing in the form of sugar
- CO2 is reduced w/the H from NADPH acquired in light reactions
- conversion requires ATP provided by light reactions
- Referred to as the dark reaction or light-independent reaction, because it does not require light
- The carb produced directly from Calvin cycle is G3P
- For the net synthesis of one G3P, the cycle must take place 3 times
- Fixing three molecules of CO2 in total
- one per turn of the cycle
- Has 3 stages
- cyclical, with the continuous conversion of CO2 to triose and hexose phosphates
Calvin cycle, photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle
stage 1
carbon-fixation reaction
- condensation of CO2 with a five-carbon acceptor, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), to form two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate
- 3-phosphoglycerate is an intermediate in photosynthesis
- plants w/this first intermediate are called C3 plants
- this reaction is catalyzed by ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, rubisco
- it covalently attaches CO2 to the five-carbon sugar RuBP
- then cleaves the unstable six-carbon intermediate to form two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate
- one has the carbon introduced as CO2 in its carboxyl group
- two forms of rubisco
- Form I
- found in vascular plants, algae, and cyanobacteria
- has a complex form I structure
- eight identical large subunits w/catalytic sites
- eight identical small subunits
- From II
- photosynthetic bacteria
- simpler in structure
- has 2 subunits that resemble the large subunits of the plant enzyme
- Form I
- low turnover number
- three molecules of CO2 are fixed per second at 25°C
- large qty of enzyme needed
- makes up almost 50% of soluble protein in chloroplast
- one of the most abundant enzymes in the biosphere
- a carbamoylated Lys side chain with a bound Mg2+ ion is key to the enzyme
- Mg2+ brings together and orients the reactants at the active site
- It polarizes the CO2, opening it to nucleophilic attack by the five-carbon enediolate reaction intermediate formed on the enzyme
- resulting six-carbon intermediate breaks down to yield two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate
- Regulation
- is inactive until carbamoylated on the ε amino group of Lys201
- Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate inhibits carbamoylation by binding tightly to the active site and locking the enzyme in the “closed” conformation, imaking Lys201 inaccessible
- Rubisco activase
- activated by light
- overcomes inhibition by promoting ATP-dependent release of the ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate
- this exposes Lys201 to nonenzymatic carbamoylation by CO2 followed by Mg2+ binding, which activates the rubisco
- 2-carboxyarabinitol 1-phosphate
- “nocturnal inhibitor”
- synthesized in the dark
- naturally occurring transition-state analog
- inhibitor of carbamoylated rubisco
- broken down when light returns or is expelled by rubisco activase, activating the rubisco.
- is inactive until carbamoylated on the ε amino group of Lys201
Calvin cycle, photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle
stage 2
Reduction
Conversion of 3-Phosphoglycerate to Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate (G3P)
- 3-phosphoglycerate is converted to G3P in two steps
- Each 3-phosphoglycerate receives an additional phosphate group from ATP, becoming 1-3-phosphoglycerate
- catalyzed by 3-phosphoglycerate kinase
- A pair of electrons donated from NADPH, reduces 1-3-phosphoglycerate which loses a phosphate group (Pi) and becomes G3P, a sugar
- catalyzed by glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
- Each 3-phosphoglycerate receives an additional phosphate group from ATP, becoming 1-3-phosphoglycerate
- the process is the reversal of glycolysis, with one exception: the nucleotide cofactor for the reduction is NADPH rather than NADH
- fates of G3P
- For 3 CO2, 6 G3P are formed
- One G3P is counted as a net gain of carbs, and exits the cycle to be used by the plant cell
- small fraction used immediately as a source of energy
- most is converted to sucrose for transport or stored in the chloroplast as starch
- some condenses with dihydroxyacetone phosphate in the stroma to form fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, a precursor of starch
- some is converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate, leaves the chloroplast and, in the cytosol, can be degraded glycolytically to provide energy or used to form fructose 6-phosphate and hence sucrose.
- Five G3P are recycled to regenerate the 3 molecules of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP)
Calvin cycle, photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle
stage 3
Regeneration of Ribulose 1,5-Bisphosphate (RuBP) from Triose Phosphates (G3P)
- Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP)
- Pathway
- aldolase catalyzes the reversible condensation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate with dihydroxyacetone phosphate, yielding fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
- fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase cleaves fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose 6-phosphate and Pi
- exergonic and irreversible
- transketolase transfers a 2-carbon ketol group (CH2OH—CO—) from fructose 6-phosphate (ketose phosphate donor) to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (aldose phosphate acceptor) forming pentose xylulose 5-phosphate and the tetrose erythrose 4-phosphate
- reversible transfer
- transketolase contains thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) as its prosthetic group and requires Mg2+
- aldolase combines erythrose 4-phosphate with dihydroxyacetone phosphate to form the seven-carbon sedoheptulose 1,7-bisphosphate
- sedoheptulose 1,7-bisphosphatase, converts bisphosphate to sedoheptulose 7-phosphate
- exergonic and irreversible
- Transketolase converts sedoheptulose 7-phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to two pentose phosphates: ribose 5-phosphate and xylulose 5-phosphate
- ribose 5-phosphate isomerase converts ribose 5-phosphate to ribulose 5-phosphate
- ribulose 5-phosphate epimerase converts xylulose 5-phosphate to ribulose 5-phosphate
- ribulose 5-phosphate phosphorylates kinase ribulose 5-phosphate to ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate
- very exergonic and irreversible
- PDF pg 837
Stoichiometry of CO2 assimilation in the Calvin cycle.
The net result of three turns of the Calvin cycle the following is produced:
- 1 triose phosphate (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, or G3P)
- 9 ATP
- 6 NADPH are consumed
- NADPH and ATP are produced in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in about the same ratio (_____) as they are consumed in the Calvin cycle.
- Nine ATP molecules are converted to _____ and _____ in the generation of a molecule of triose phosphate
- Eight of the phosphates are released as ______ and combined with eight _____ to regenerate ATP.
- The ninth phosphate is incorporated into the _____ _____ .
- To convert the ninth ADP to ATP, a molecule of _____ must be imported from the cytosol
- 2:3
- ADP, phosphate
- Pi, ADP
- triose phosphate
- Pi
The chloroplast stroma contains all the enzymes necessary to convert the triose phosphates produced by CO2 assimilation (_____ _____ and ______ ______) to starch, which is temporarily stored in the _____ as insoluble granules
- glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)
- dihydroxyacetone phosphate
- chloroplast