Chapter 2 Theories of Human Development

Question 1

Psychoanalytic Theory

Answer 1

Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939)
Stage theory of development
People confront conflicts between biological drives (“instincts”—Eros & Thanatos) & social expectations

Question 2

Id

Answer 2

Instinctual nature of humans
Present at birth
Impulsive, irrational, pleasure-seeking

Question 3

Ego

Answer 3

Rational and objective

Emerges in infancy to redirect id’s impulses to make sure they are fulfilled at appropriate times

Question 4

Superego

Answer 4

Represents internalized moral standards

Develops (age 3-6) through interactions with parents

Question 5

Psychosexual Theory

Answer 5

How parents manage their child’s sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development
Fixation: arrested development at a particular stage
Integration of id, ego, superego occurs over 5 stages:1

Question 6

Psychoanalytic Theory

Answer 6

Major influences on personality & development
Childhood relationships & experiences are crucial, particularly relationships with parents
Childhood sexuality (Freud)
Unconscious motivations
Emotional conflicts
Biological events/urges interact with social experiences

Question 7

Behaviorism John Watson

Answer 7

Behaviorism:
Conclusions should be based on observable behavior only
Emotions & “unconscious” are not important
Development occurs through the learning process, not a set of biologically determined stages

Question 8

Classical Conditioning

Answer 8

A form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response originally produced by another stimulus
Pavlov’s dogs (Pavlov, 1890s)

Question 9

Reinforcement

Answer 9

Pleasant consequence that increases the probability of behavior
Positive reinforcement
Giving something desirable
Negative reinforcement
Taking away something undesirable

Question 10

Punishment

Answer 10

Unpleasant consequence that decreases the probability of behavior
Positive punishment
Giving something undesirable
Negative punishment
Taking away something desirable

Question 11

Jean Piaget

Answer 11

Children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world (constructivism)
Intelligence: Ability to adapt to environment
Stage theory that suggests both biological maturation and experience are required for developmental progress
At each new stage, children think in a qualitatively different way

Question 12

Lev Vygotsky

Answer 12

There are no universal stages
Cognitive development is a social process
Development occurs as a result of our interaction with others
Problem solving aided by dialogues
Language as an important developmental tool

Question 13

System Theory

Answer 13

Development results from ongoing transactions between an ever-changing individual and his ever-changing world
Makes behavioral predictions difficult
Represents a collection of ideas from different areas (heredity, environment, evolutionary influences) as they influence development
Includes Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of development

Question 14

Ecological Systems Theory

Answer 14

Individuals develop within complex systems of relationships that are affected by multiple levels of surrounding environments
Each level has a powerful impact on development
People are products & producers of their environment