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Developmental PSYC213 > Chapter 2: theories of development > Flashcards

Chapter 2: theories of development Flashcards

1
Q

Theory:

A

A set of orderly statements to describe, explain and predict behaviour in various domains

The continued existence of theory depends on scientific verification

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2
Q

Qualities of a good theory:

A
  • Internally consistent
  • Provide meaningful explanations
  • Open to scientific evaluation
  • Stimulate new thinking and research

• Provide guidance in application

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3
Q

Different questions theories ask/ how they differ

A
  • Does development occur through maturation or experience?
  • Is development continuous or discontinuous?
  • Process or stage?
  • Is development active or passive?
  • Mechanistic vs. organismic models
  • Are theories broad or narrow in scope?
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4
Q

Psychodynamic theories

A
  • Development an active dynamic process
  • Influence of biological drives and conscious and unconscious elements
  • Structure of personality
  • Id – pleasure principle
  • Ego – reality principle
  • Superego – conscience

Sigmund Freud 1856-1939

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5
Q

Freud’s psychosexual stages and developmental processes

A
  • Oral: birth - 1 year
  • Anal: 1-3 years (toileting)
  • Phallic: 3-6 years (genitals and gender role development)
  • Latency: 6-12 years (suspended sexual activity)
  • Genital: 12 - adulthood (genitals and stimulation, onset of puberty)

refer to notes for further info

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6
Q

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

A
  • Expanded and refined Freud’s stages – “Neo- Freudian”
  • Stage theorist
  • Eight stages and each stage associated with a crisis to be resolved
  • Development was reversible

Erik Erikson 1902-1994

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7
Q

Erikson’s 8 stages of development

A

basic trust vs mistrust: birth -18 months

autonomy vs shame and doubt: 1-2 years

intiative vs guilt: 3-6 years

industry vs inferiority: 7-11 years

identity vs role vonfusion: adolescence

intimacy vs isolation: 20s and 30s

generativity vs stagnation: 40s and 60s

ego integrity vs dispair: 60s onwards

refer to notes

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8
Q

Psychodynamic theories help us understand:

A
  • Formation of attachments
  • Development of autonomy and self-control
  • Development of intimate relationships in adolescence and adulthood
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9
Q

Learning

A

Long-lasting change in behaviour, based on experience or adaptation to the environment

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10
Q

Behaviourism

A
  • We respond based on whether the situation is:
  • Painful or threatening
  • Pleasurable
  • Associative learning
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11
Q

Classical conditioning

A

John Watson 1878-1958

• “Little Albert”

Albert liked the furry rat

Rat is then presented with loud ‘CRASH’

Albert cried because of the noise

Eventually, sight of the rat made Albert cry

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12
Q

Operant conditioning

A
  • Individual learns the consequences of ‘operating’ on the environment
  • Learned relationship between behaviour and its consequences
  • Skinner formulated original ideas by working with animals, then applied them to humans

B.F. Skinner 1904-1990

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13
Q

Operant conditioning: reinforcement

A
  • Strengthens response; increases likelihood of behaviour reoccurring
  • Can be positive or negative
  • Positive: giving a reward
  • Lollies for finishing a task; saying “well done!”
  • No chores for getting an A+ on homework
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14
Q

Operant conditioning: punishment

A

• Weakens response; decreases likelihood of behaviour reoccurring

  • Can be positive or negative
  • Positive: Adding something aversive
  • Getting scolded; smacking
  • Negative: Removing something pleasant

• Taking away car keys; getting a time out

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15
Q

Social Cognitive Learning Theory

A

• Albert Bandura proposes developmental change through observational learning:

  • Imitation
  • Modelling: vicarious reinforcement
  • Reciprocal determination – interaction between individual and environment
  • Four-step model of observational learning
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16
Q

Bhevaiour modification definition

What is behaviour modification based on?

What is it useful for managing?

A

Defined as a specific set of techniques that is based on operant conditioning and social cognitive learning used to eliminate undesired behaviours and increase desirable responses

Based on:

  • Operant conditioning
  • Social cognitive learning

Useful for managing:

  • Eating disorders
  • Delinquent behaviours

• Other developmental and behavioural issues such as fears, language delays, aggression

17
Q

What are cognitive developmental theories focused on?

A
  • how thinking and problem-solving skills develop

Piaget’s cognitive theory

18
Q

Piaget: Cognitive Stage Theory

A
  • Clinical method
  • Combining observation with flexible questioning

• Development begins with an inborn ability to adapt to the environment, E.g., exploring a room

as a result of both maturation and experience, thinking develops through a series of increasingly sophisticated stages, each incorporating the achievements of previous stages

19
Q

Piaget’s cognitive stages

A
  • Sensorimotor: Birth -2 years
  • Preoperational: 2-7 years
  • Concrete operational: 7-11 years
  • Formal operational: 11- adulthood
  • Post-operational?
20
Q

Sensorimotor stage:

A
  • Birth - 2 years
  • coordination of sensory and motor activity; achievement of object permenance
  • infants begin to develop their knowledge fo the world through their senses
21
Q

Preoperational stage:

A
  • 2-7 years
  • use of language and symbolic representation
  • ego-centric view of the world
  • make-believe play
  • thinking lacks logic
22
Q

Concrete operational stage:

A
  • 7-11 years
  • solution of concrete problems through logical operations
  • objects are organised into heirarchies and classes and subclasses
  • thinking is not yet abstract
23
Q

Formal operational stage:

A
  • 11 - adulthood
  • systematic solution of acutal and hypothetical problemsusing abstract symbols
  • capacity for abstract, systematic thinking
  • capable of deducing testable inferences
24
Q

Piaget’s concepts:

A
  • *• Direct learning:** scheme development
  • *• Scheme:** systematic pattern of thoughts, actions, and

problem-solving strategies

• Adaptation: How children handle new information in light of what they already know; schemes deepened or modified via:

• Assimilation

  • *• Accommodation**
  • *• Social transmission:** influence through observation of

others
• Physical maturation: biologically determined changes

25
Q

Two processes of adaptation:

A
  • Assimilation: Incorporating new information into existing schemes
    • Interpret and respond to events in terms of an existing scheme
  • Accommodation: Changing structures to include new information
    • Change existing scheme when faced with new ideas or situations in which the old schemes no longer work
26
Q

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory

A

• Four interactive, overlapping contexts

– Microsystem

– Mesosystem

– Exosystem
– Macrosystem

  • Environment an ever- changing system*
  • Contextual theory*
27
Q

Lev Vygotsky 1896-1934 Contextual theory

Zone of proximal development

A
  • Cognitive development ‘context specific’
  • Higher mental functions associated with social interactions and dialogues with parents, teachers, peers and others
  • Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
    • The range in which tasks need support from more knowledgeable adults and peers
    • Support through scaffolding
28
Q

The application of contextual theories

A
  • Understanding how individual development interacts with the context in which it occurs
  • Examination of the multiple factors influencing issues
  • Vygotsky’s ZPD important in understanding the development of problem solving and the culturally specific nature this may take
29
Q

Vaillant’s normative crisis model developmental periods

A
  • Age of establishment (20-30 years): increasing autonomy from parents; marraige, parenthood and establishing more intimate friendships
  • Career consolidation (20-40 years): consolidating and strengthening marraige and career, devotion to hard work and advancement
  • Midlife transition (40-50 years): hieghtened self-awareness and exploration of forgotten inner-self opening the way for achieveing greater generativitiy
  • Midlife (50 or older): becoming increasingly self-reflective nurturant and expressive
30
Q

Timing-of-Events model

A
  • Normative life events (on time)
  • Non-normative life events (off time)
  • Internalised social clock tell individuals if they are ‘on time’
  • Accounts for variability in adult experience
  • Focus on the impact of social expectations and the more active, self-conscious role of adults
31
Q

Dynamic Systems Perspective

A
  • Recognition that children’s development both consistent and variable
  • System seen as dynamic, constantly in change

A change in one part of the system requires child to reorganise their behaviour to form a new system

Can account for a range of individual differences due to unique experiences of each child

32
Q

Comparisons and implications of theories

A
  • Theories help to systematically organise ideas
  • Theories can stimulate new thinking and guide

understandings and professional practice

  • No one theory can provide a complete explanation, but together may be complementary
  • Need to remain critical in our considerations about theories

Developmental PSYC213 (11 decks)

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