Chapter 2: Theories of Development

Question 1

nature versus nurture controversy

Answer 1

a debate regarding the relative influence of heredity versus experience/the environment on development. While some development theorists underscore one over the other, both nature and nurture influence development.

Question 2

tabula rasa

Answer 2

the term used by Greek philosopher Aristotle and the British philosopher John Locke to describe the mind as being blank at birth. This is an extreme nurture view in the nature versus nurture controversy.

Question 3

discontinuity or stage theories

Answer 3

any developmental theory that suggests development occurs through a series of qualitatively different stages or phases. Stages are usually described as having to occur in a specific order and as being universal across contexts and or cultures.

Question 4

continuity theories

Answer 4

any development theory that suggests development takes place through a series of small, incremental improvements gradually occurring over time. Development is considered to involve quantitative rather than qualitative change.

Question 5

Sigmund Freud

Answer 5

well known father of the psychoanalytic theory. he argued that personality development takes place through a series of universal stages beginning with birth and ending in adolescense. He stressed the role of unconscious motivation and drives, unconscious motivation and drives, such as the libido, in creating psychosexual crises during these stages. He also posed a structure of the personality which included the id, ego, and superego.

Question 6

Jean Piaget

Answer 6

theorist who constructed a stage model of cognitive development and who argued that cognitive development is the result of the child constructing schema based on his or her activity with objects in the environment. His theory is a discontinuity theory of development which emphasizes universals in development.

Question 7

Erik Erikson

Answer 7

the psychologist who constructed the psychosocial theory of personality development. He argued personality develops throughout the lifespan and his model contains eight stages beginning with birth and ending in old age. During each stage of development the person faces a psychosocial crisis which can be resolved in a positive or negative way. Erickson is also well known for his discussion of identity development in adolescense.

Question 8

universality

Answer 8

the principle that developmental changes occur the same in all people across all cultures

Question 9

Urie Bronfenbrenner

Answer 9

the psychologists who created the ecological systems theory of development.

Question 10

context-specific

Answer 10

the principle that developmental changes are influenced by and therefore are specific to, the sociocultural context in which the individual lives. Development varies across cultures and contexts.

Question 11

collectivist cultures

Answer 11

name used for cultures that value the common good rather than individual achievement

Question 12

individualistic cultures

Answer 12

name used for cultures that value individual achievement and drive rather than the common good.

Question 13

cognitive-developmental theory

Answer 13

this theory describes and explains changes in thinking that occur with age. Jean Piaget is the most influential theorist with this perspective. Piaget constructed a stage model of cognitive development and his argued that these stages were universal. He suggested that a child constructs schema based on the result of his or her actions in the environment. A schemes an organized as the child progresses through the four stages, which are sensorimotor intelligence, preoperations, concrete operations, and formal operations.

Question 14

accommodation

Answer 14

Piaget’s term for the process of modifying an existing scheme in order to include a new experience

Question 15

assimilation

Answer 15

Piaget’s term for the process of modifying an experience to make it fit into a preexisting scheme.

Question 16

disequilibrium

Answer 16

the term used by Piaget to describe the cognitive experience of imbalance that occurs when a child’s experience does not fit into preexisting schema. This psychological state is the motivation for developmental change. According to Piaget, the child is motivated to return to a state of mental equilibrium or balance.

Question 17

constructivism

Answer 17

the term used by theorists like Piaget who argue that the developing child actively constructs ideas derived from an active exploration of his or her environment.

Question 18

Lawrence Kohlberg

Answer 18

the psycohologist who studied moral reasoning and suggested a stage model of moral development. This model contains three stages: preconventional moral reasoning, conventional moral reasoning, and post conventional moral reasoning. He presented moral dilemmas to subjects and observed differences in reasoning about these dilemmas across age groups.

Question 19

information processing approach

Answer 19

an approach to studying cognitive development that uses a computer metaphor for the mind. This approach suggests the mind is an information processing system. Developmental changes in information processing are described as being an increase in processing speed and capacity.

Question 20

learning theory

Answer 20

the theory of language development derived from the Behaviorist perspective in psychology. Language development is described as being continuous and gradual. Development is believed to be the result of experience. Language is defined as verbal behavior witch is conditioned or shaped.

Question 21

behaviorist perspective

Answer 21

a theoretical perspective in psychology that defines development as changes in overt behavior. This perspective underscores the role of the environment in development and describes the developing person as passive in the developmental process. The mind is viewed as being a tabula rasa (blank slate) at birth. This perspective has its roots in the work of Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, and BF Skinner.

Question 22

Ivan Pavlov

Answer 22

the behavioral psychologist who created the classical conditioning theory within the Learning theory approach. Pavlov discovered that a previously reflexive response could be conditioned to be emitted in response to a novel stimulus. He discovered classical conditioning serendipitously while conducting experiences on the salivary reflex in dogs.

Question 23

classical conditioning

Answer 23

the learning process discovered by Ivan Pavlov by which a reflexive response is elicited by a new stimulus. The conditioning is accomplished by the new stimulus, called the conditioned stimulus, becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus which initially controlled the reflex.

Question 24

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Answer 24

this is the stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory

Question 25

conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 25

the term used in Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory for the stimulus that elicits the conditioned response after it has been repeatedly presented with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Pavlov argued that an associative bond forms between the UCS and CS which enables the CS to elicit the reflexive response.

Question 26

generalization

Answer 26

Pavlov’s term for when a conditioned response can be elicited by related conditioned stimuli, e.g. similar tone frequencies.

Question 27

discrimination

Answer 27

the gradual process of conditioning a response to only occur to a specific stimulus, e.g. a bell of a certain tone, rather than a collection of tones that are similar in frequency.

Question 28

extinction

Answer 28

Pavlov’s term for the process that reverses conditioning in the classical conditioning paradigm. This is accomplished by successively presenting the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Eventually the CS no longer elicits the conditioned response (CR).

Question 29

B.F. Skinner

Answer 29

the behavioral psychologist who created the operant conditioning theory within the learning theory approach. Skinner argued behavior is shaped through reinforcement and punishment. If a behavior is reinforced, the probability that it will occur again in the same stimulus conditions increases. Punishment, on the other hand, reduces the probability that behavior will be repeated. Skinner’s approach has been very influential in classroom management as well as in clinical approaches to treating disorders.

Question 30

operant conditioning

Answer 30

a type of learning, described by BF Skinner, in which behavior is shaped through the use of reinforcement and punishment. A behavior which is followed by reinforcement will tend to be repeated and a behavior followed by punishment will tend not to be repeated.

Question 31

punishment

Answer 31

a term from Skinner’s operant conditioning theory. It is anything a subject experiences after a behavior that reduces the probability the behavior will be repeated under similar stimulus conditions.

Question 32

shaping

Answer 32

Skinner’s term for the process of learning whereby a new behavior is conditioned. Shaping is accomplished by systematically reinforcing successive approximations of the goal behavior. Skinner created the Skinner box or operant chamber which is the apparatus used to shape behavior. A hungry or thirsty animal is placed in the Skinner box and successively rewarded with food or water, respectively, for closer and closer approximations of the goal behavior.

Question 33

positive reinforcement

Answer 33

In Skinner’s operant conditioning theory, this is a type of reinforcement used to shape behavior. Positive reinforcement is presenting a reward to a person or animal after the goal behavior is emitted. This term is formally defined by Skinner as any thing that is give to a subject after a behavior is emitted that increases the probabiltiy the behavior will be repeated under the same stimulus conditions.

Question 34

negative reinforcement

Answer 34

In Skinner operant conditioning theory, this is the term for a reward that involves removing a noxious stimulus or condition after a goal behavior is emitted. This term is formally defined by Skinner as the removal of a noxious stimulus after a behavior is emitted that increases the probability the behavior will be repeated under similar stimulus conditions.

Question 35

Albert Bandura

Answer 35

psychologist who created the social learning theory. He also conducted the classic study which showed that children who previously viewed an adult model be aggressive toward a doll imitated the adult model when placed in a room with the doll.

Question 36

vicarious reinforcement

Answer 36

the term for the control over an individual’s behavior that is a consequence of observing a model being reinforced. Social learning theorists argue and individual is more likely to imitate a model’s behavior if he or she observes that behavior being rewarded.

Question 37

unconscious

Answer 37

the part of the psyche that Freud suggested contained innate drives and impulses. These instincts are described as animalistic and irrational. One instinct Freud underscored in his system was the libido or sexual instinct. The unconscious also is a receptacle for repressed thoughts. Thoughts that are unacceptable to the ego and superego are pushed into the unconscious to reduce anxiety. It is these repressed thoughts, however that can lead to neuroses.

Question 38

libido

Answer 38

the term for the sexual instinct or dive in Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis.

Question 39

regression

Answer 39

the term used by Freud for the process the ego uses to displace anxiety provoking thoughts from consciousness.

Question 40

denial

Answer 40

the first stage in Elisabeth Kubler-Ross model of adjustment to terminal illness. She argued that the terminally ill patient at first does not accept his or her prognosis and may believe that there has been a mistake.

Question 41

oral stage

Answer 41

the first stage in Freud’s psychosexual model of personality development which lasts from birth until one year. Libidinal energy is focused on obtaining gratifying stimulation of the mouth in this stage.

Question 42

anal stage

Answer 42

the second stage in Freud’s psychosexual model of personality development which lasts from the age of one until the age of three. Libidinal energy is focused on obtaining gratifying stimulation of the anal area in this stage. The ego appears in this stage and continues to develop throughout the remaining steps.

Question 43

phallic

Answer 43

the 3rd stage in Freud’s psychosexual model of personality development which lasts from the age of three until age six. Libidinal energy is focused on obtaining gratifying stimulation of the genital area in this stage. It is during the stage that the Oedipal and Electra crises arise and are resolved through indentification with the same sex parent. The superego develops in this stage

Question 44

latency

Answer 44

the fourth stage in Freud’s psychosexual model of personality development which lasts from age 6 until 12. The libido is quite inactive during this stage and there is no psychosexual crisis. According to Freud, children in this stage are focused on same sex peers, school, and play.

Question 45

genital stage

Answer 45

the 5th and final stage in Freud’s psychosexual model of personality development which begins at age 12. According to Freud, libidinal energy is channeled into work and establishing mature sexual relationships in this stage.

Question 46

sociocultural theory

Answer 46

this theory describes the influence of social and cultural forces on human development. Lev Vygotsky formulated this approach and argued that an individual’s cognitive development occurs within a context of interaction between the individual and other members of the individual’s culture. Hence, a sociocultural values and beliefs are transmitted to younger generations in a society.

Question 47

reciprocal determinism

Answer 47

the principle that suggests development is the result of the bidirectional relationship between the person and the environment

Question 48

Lev Vygotsky

Answer 48

russian theorist who created the sociocultural theory of development

Question 49

ecological systems theory

Answer 49

Bronfenbrenner’s theory that child development occurs within multiple sociocultural systems. The child’s experiences and interactions with members of these systems contribute to the child’s personality, behavior, and thinking. The systems in this theory are depicted as a series of concentric circles beginning in the center with the microsystem (e.g. the family), which is the system the child directly interacts in, then the exosystem within, which the child does not directly participate but which nonetheless impacts the child’s development (e.g. parent’s workplace) to the outermost circle, the macrosystem, which is the larger sociocultural system.

Question 50

Darwin’s theory of evolution

Answer 50

the theory that has influenced both evolutionary psychology and ethology. Darwin argued that species evolve slowly over a long period of time through a process of natural selection. There are four elements

Question 51

critical periods

Answer 51

a term used by ethologists to describe a narrow window of time in which a trait or behavior must develop

Question 52

sensitive period

Answer 52

a modification of the term “critical period” to communicate the fact that humans show a greater flexibility to acquire behaviors or traits outside of a a critical period of time. While a trait or behavior may be acquired more quickly or more easily during the critical period for its development, it is not impossible for it to be acquired outside of this time frame. The term “sensitive period” connotes the time frame within which a behavior or trait is more readily acquired.

Question 53

The four elements of natural selection

Answer 53

1. there is a struggle to survive among members of a species since there is a limited supply of food and other resources.
2. members of a species inherit chance variations of species’ traits
3. some variations of traits increase the chance of survival because they help the individual better adapt in his or her environment
4. those members who inherit adaptive traits tend no to survive to maturity and reproduce thus passing on these chance variations to their biological offspring. Those who do not inherit adaptive traits tend not to survive and therefore do not reproduce and pass on their traits. Very gradually then species evolve over time.