Chapter 2 - The Biological Perspective Flashcards
What is the nervous system?
A network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body.
What is neuroscience?
A branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and functioning of the brain and the neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue that form the nervous system.
What is biological psychology?
Also called behavioral neuroscience. It is the branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of the psychological processes, behavior, and learning, and it is the primary areas associated with the biological perspective in psychology.
What is a neuron?
A specialized cell in the nervous system that receives and send messages with that system. They are one of the messengers of the body.
What is a dendrite?
A branch attached to the cell body that is responsible for receiving messages.
What is the soma?
The body of the cell and is responsible for keeping the entire cell alive.
What is the axon?
Is a fiber that is attached to the soma, and is responsible for carrying messages out to other cells.
What is the axon terminal?
The tip of the axon responsible for communication with other nerve cells.
What is a glial cell?
Some serve as a sort of structure on which the neurons develop and work and that hold the neurons in place.
What is myelin?
Created from a special type of glial cell called oligodendrocyte. Is a layer of fatty substance that surrounds the shaft of the axons forming an insulating and protective barrier.
What is a tract?
Bundles of myelin coated axons travel together as cables in the central nervous system.
What is a nerve?
In the peripheral nervous system, bundles of axons are called nerves.
What is diffusion?
The process of ions moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.
What is multiple sclerosis?
The myelin sheath is destroyed wich leads to complete loss of nervous system.
What is electrostatic pressure?
The relative electrical charg when the ions are at rest.
What is semipermeable?
Some substances that are outside the cell can enter through tiny protein openings, or channels, in the membrane, while other substances can go outside.
What is resting potential?
When the cell is resting, the electrical potential is in a state called resting potential, because the cell is at rest.
What is action potential?
An electrical charge reversal, because the electrical potential is now in action rather than at rest.
How do neurons fire?
All or none fashion. They are either firing at full strength or not at all.
What is the synaptic vesicles?
The little sac like structures in an axon terminal.
What is a neurotransmitter?
The chemicals used to transmit a message.
What is the synapse, or synaptic gap?
The fluid filled space between the dendrite of one neuron and the axon of another neuron.
What are receptor sites?
Proteins that allow only particular molecules of a certain shape to fit into it, just as only a particular key will fit into a keyhole.
How does the synapse work?
The nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal, triggering the release of neurotransmitters from the synaptic vesicles. The molecules of the neurotransmitter cross the synaptic gap to fit into the receptor sites that fit the shape of the molecule, opening the ion channel and allowing sodium ions to rush in.
What does excitatory effect mean?
The neurotransmitters found in the various synapses around the nervous system can either turn cells on.
What does inhibitory neurotransmitters mean?
The neurotransmitters found in the various synapses around the nervous system can either turn cells off.
What is curare?
Date rape drug. it blocks or reduces the effects of neurotransmitters for ACh
What is Acetylcholine (ACh)?
The first neurotransmitter to be identified. It is found at the synapses between neurons and muscle cells. It stimulates the skeletal muscles to contract but actually slows contraction in the hear muscle.
What would happen if the neurons release too much ACh?
Convulsions and posslibly death.
What is an antagonist?
A chemical substance that blocks or reduces the effects of neurotransmitters.
What is an agonist?
A chemical substance that mimis or enhances the effects of a neurotransmitter.
What does ACh also play key roles in?
Memory, arousal, and attention. It is found on the hippocampus, an area responsible for forming new memories. Low levels of ACh have been associated with Alzheimer’s disease.
What is dopamine (DA)?
Is a neurotransmitter found in the brain, and like some of the other neurotransmitters, it can have adifferent effects depending on the exact location of its activity. too little DA is released in certain area of the brain can result in Parkinsons Disease. If too much DA is released then the results can be schizophrenia.
What is Serotonin (5-HT)?
Neurotransmitter origininating in the lower part of the brain that effects sleep, mood, anxiety, and appetite. Low levels have been linked with depression.
What is glutamate?
The major excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system. It too plays an important role in learning and memory and may be involved in synaptic plasticity. Excess results in overactivation and neuronal damage. may be associated with the cell death that occurs afer stroke, head injury, or other diseases.
What is Gaba-aminobutryic acid (GABA)?
The most common neurotransmitter prodicing inhibition in the brain. helps calm anxiety.
What are neuropeptides?
Like endorphins, they influence hormones or the action of other neurtransmitters.
What is endorphin?
Pain controlling chemicals in the body. Inhibitory neural regulators.
What is reuptake?
The process of sucking the chemicals back into the vesicles before the next stimulation can occur. some drift away through diffusion.
What do drugs like cocain do to our nervous system?
They block the reuptake process.
What is the one neurotransmitter that is not taken back into the vesicles?
ACh
How is ACh cleared?
A specific anzyme designed to break apart ACh clears the synaptic gap very quickly which is called enzymatic degradation.
What is oligodendrocytes?
they produce myelin in the central nervous system.
What is a Schwann cell?
they produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system.
What is the brain mostly comprised of?
Neurons and Glial cells
What is the Central Nervous System (CNS) comprised of?
The brain and the Spinal cord, which are cposed of neurons and glial cells that control the life sustaining function of the body as well as thought, emotion, and behavior.
Define the brain
Is the core of the nervous system. The part that makes sense of the information received form the senses makes decisions, and sends commands out to the muscles and the rest of the body, if needed.
It is responsible for cognition and thoughts, including learning, memory, and language.
It is organized into different regions, each with primary functions
Define the spinal cord
is a long bundle of neurons that serves two vital functions for the nervous system.
The lighter outer section and a darker inner section.
Outer section is comprised of mainly myelinated axons and nerves, which appear white. Purpose is to carry messages from the body up to the brain and from the brain down to the body. A large pipeline
inner section is mainly composed of cell bodies fo neurons which appear gray. Made of cell bodes separated by glial cells, is like a primitive brain. Is responsible for certain reflexes.
Has three types of neurons
- Afferent (sensory) neurons that carry messages from the senses to the spinal cord
- efferent (motor) neurons that carry messages from the spinal cord to the muscles and glands
- interneurons that connect the afferent neurons to the efferent neurons.
What are Afferent (Sensory) Neurons?
neurons that carry messages from the senses to the spinal cord. and CNS
What are Efferent (motor) Neurons?
neurons that carry messages from the spinal cord to the muscles and glands
What are interneurons?
Connect the afferent to the efferent.
What is the brain?
Interprets and stores information and sends orders to muscles, glands, and organs.
What is the spinal cord?
Pathway connecting the brain and the peripheral nervous system.
What is the Peripheral nervous system?
Transmits information to and from the central nervous system.
Has two sections:
1. Autonomic
2. Somatic
What is the Autonomic vervous system?
Automatically regulates glands, internal organs, and blood vessels, pupil dilation, digestion, and blood pressure.
Has two divisions.
- Parasympathetic
- Sympathetic
What is the parasympathetic division?
maintains body functions under ordinary conditions; saves energy.
What is the sympathetic division?
Prepares the body to react and expend energy in times of stress.
What is the Somatic Nervous System?
Carries sensory information and controls movement of the skeletal muscles
Has two systems;
1. Sensory system Afferent
2. Motor system efferent.
What is a reflex arc?
The connection of the afferent with the efferent through interneurons controlled by the spinal cord alone which allows for very fast response times.
What are some common myths related to brains
- Old brains cant make new cells
- Listening to classical music makes you smarter
- autism is caused by childhood vaccinations
- people only use 10 percent of their brains
Is damage to the CNS permanent?
No, there is a thing called Neuroplasticity.
What is neuroplasticity?
The ability of the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in the brain in response to experience and even trauma.
What are stem cells?
They can become any cell in the body and may offer promise for addressing diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s, or the repair of damaged spinal cords or brain tissue.
Describe the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Is made up of all the nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal cord. It is this system that allows the brain and spinal cord to communicate with the sensory systems of the eyes, ears, skin, and mouth and allows the brain and spinal cord to control the muscles and glands of the body.
What are endocrine glands?
they have no ducts and secret their chemiclas directly into the bloodstream. Chemicals are called hormones.
How do hormones affect behavior?
by stimulating muscles, organs, or other glands of the body. Some hormones also influence the activity of the brain, producing excitatory or inhibitory effects.
What is the pituitary gland?
It is located in the brain itself, just below the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus controls the glandular system by influencing the pituitary. Is considered the master gland. secrets oxytocin.
What is oxytocin?
the hormone that controls aspect of pregnancy. it is involved in a variety of ways with both reproduction and parental behavior. it stimulates contractions in childbirth. Is found in the pituitary gland.
Where does growth hormone come from?
Petuitary gland
What is the pineal gland?
Located in the brain near the back directly above the brain stem. plays a factor on biological rhythms. secrets melatonin
What is melatonin?
Helps track day length, which helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle. found in the pineal gland.
What is the thyroid gland?
Located inside the neck and secretes hormones that regulate growth and metabolism. Thyroxin is produced here that allows this to happen.
What is thyroxin?
Helps regulate metabolism, is found in the thyroid gland.
What is the pancreas?
Controls level of blood sugar in the body by secreting insulin and glucagon. If too little then diabetes. if too much then hypoglycemia.
What is the gonads?
the sex glands, including the ovaries and the testes. Secret hormones that regulate sexual behavior.
What is the adrenal glands?
everyone has two one on top of each kidney. is divided into two sections:
- adrenal medulla - releases epinephrine and norepinephrine when under stress
- adrenal cortex - produces over 30 hormones called corticoids (steroids) that regulate salt intake, control stress, and provide a source of sex hormones in addition to those provided by the gonads. Releases glucose into the bloodstream during stress providing energy from the brain itself.
What is the adrenal medulla?
releases epinephrine and norepinephrine when under stress. first part of the adrenal gland
What is the adrenal cortex?
produces over 30 hormones called corticoids (steroids) that regulate salt intake, control stress, and provide a source of sex hormones in addition to those provided by the gonads. Releases glucose into the bloodstream during stress providing energy from the brain itself. Second part of the adrenal gland.
What were lesioning studies?
The study of the functions of the brain with animals or people with damage to those area.
What is lesioning?
An electrical current strong enough to kill off the target neurons is sent through the tip of the wire.
What is electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)?
a less harmful way to study the brain that temporarily disrupts or enhances the normal functioning of specific brain areas through electrical stimulation. Like lesioning but much milder current in this research does no damage to the neurons, but does cause the neurons to react as if they had received a message.
What is Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)?
DBS is a specific type of ESB. Neurosurgeons place elecrodes in specific deep-brain areas and then route the electrode wires to a pacemaker-like device called an impulse generator that is surgically implanted under the collarbone. Used in treatemnet for parkinsons. Only used after all other less instrusive techniques have failed.
What is Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?
Magnetic pulses are applied to the cortex using special copper wire coils that are positioned over the head. Magnetic fields stimulate neurons in targeted area of the cortex.
What is rTMS?
repetitive TMS that has a longer lasting stimulation.
What is transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)?
Uses scalp electrodes to pass very low amplitude direct current to the brain to change the excitability of cortical neurons directly below the electrodes.
What are rTMS and tDCS being evaluated for?
as research tools in studies of cognition such as memory retrieval and decision making and possible treatment options for a variety of psychological disorders including ptsd and depression and physical disorders due to suffering a stroke.
What is computed tomography (CT)?
A series of X-rays of the brain aided by a computer. involves mapping slices of the brain. Can show stroke damage, tumors, injuries, and abnormal brain structure. Is also the structural imaging method of choice when it comes to metal in the body. also useful for imaging possible skull fractures. doesn’t show small details
What is Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)?
Provides much more detail, even allowing doctors to see the effects of very small strokes. This machine generates a powerful magnetic field to align hydrogen atoms in the brain tissues, then radio pulses are used to make the atoms spin at a particular frequency and direction. this allows a computer to create a three-dimensional image of the brain and display slices of that image on a screen. has allowed us to develop and study other aspects of the brian. MRI spectroscopy DTI.
What is MRI spectroscopy?
allows researchers to estimate the concentration of specific chemicals and neurotransmitters in the brain.
What is diffusion tensor imaging?
The brain has two distinct color regions, gray matter called the outer areas consisting largely of neurons with unmyelinated axons, and white matter, the fiver tracts consisting of myelinated axons. DTI uses MRI tech to provide a way to measure connectivity in the brain by imagin these white matter tracts. Has been used to investigate multiple sclerosis, dementia, and schizophrenia, and to help researchers understand how differences in white matter tracts in the corpus callosum influence everyday skills like hand coordination.
What are some ways to map brain structure?
CT, MRI, MRI spectroscopy, and DTI.
What are some ways to map brain function?
EEG, MEG, PET, SPECT, fMRI.
What is the electroencephalogram (EEG)?
Records the electrical activity of the cortex just below the skull using a device called EEG. 1st EEG was created in 1924 by hans berger. recording the EEG involves using small metal disks or spongelike electrodes placed directly ohnn the scalp. they are connected to an amplifier and then to a computer to view the information. the output forms waves that indicate many things, like stages of sleep, seizures, and even the presence of tumors. The EEG can be used to help determine which areas of the brain are active during various mental tasks that involve memory and attention. EEG activity can be classified in accrding to appearance and frequency and different waves are associated with different brain activity. Alpha waves are the back of the brain.
What is another common EEG like tech?
Event-related potentials, or ERPs.
What does an ERP allow?
the study of different stages of cognitive processing.
What is a magnetoencephalography (MEG)?
Allows for direct identification of areas of brain activation. By using very sensitive superconducting quantum interference devices which are contained in a helmet-like device that is placed over the individuals head.
What is positron emission tomography (PET)?
A person is injected with radioactive glucose, then the computer detects the activity of the brain cells by looking at which cells are using the glucose and projecting the image of that activity onto a monitor. The computer uses colors toindicate different levels of brain activity.
What is single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)?
This measures brain blood flow and takes advantage of more easily obtainable radioactive tracers than those use for PET.
what is functional MRI (fMRI)?
This provides information on the brains function as well. combines a set of images to create a movie like
What three main structures does the brain divide into?
The forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain.
What major structures does the forebrain include?
cortex, basal ganglia, and the limbic system.
What major structures does the midbrain include?
Sensory and motor functions.
What major structures does the hindbrain include?
medulla, pons, and cerebellum.
What is the medulla?
Located at the top of the spinal column, it is the first swelling at the top of the cord, at the very bottom of the brain. Least want damaged part. It controls life-sustaining functions like hearbeat, breathing, and swallowing. It is here that the sensory nerves coming from the left and right sides of the body cross over, so that sensory information from the left side of the body goes to the right side of the brain and vice versa
What is the pons?
This is the larger swelling just above the medulla. the term means bridge. It is a bridge between the lower parts of the brain and the upper sections. There is a crossover of nerves but in this case it is the motor nerves carrying messages from the brain to the body. This allows the pons to coordinate the movements of the left and right sides fo the body. It influences sleep, dreaming, and arousal. Part of the hindbrain that relays messages between the cerebellum and the cortex
What is the corpus callosum?
Connects left and right hemispheres of the brain located just under the cerebral cortex allows the left and right hemispheres to communicate with each other.
What is the hypothalamus?
Part of the forebrain that regulates the amount of fear, thirst, sex drive, and aggression we feel. is located just just below and in front of the thalamus. sits right above the pituitary gland. this controls the pituitary.
What is the pituitary gland?
Regulates other endocrine glands. and is located in front of the pons and below the hypothalamus.
What is the hippocampus?
Play a rold in our learning, memory, and ability to compare sensory information to expectations, is located in front of and above the cerebellum, and under the hypothalamus. Instrumental in forming long-term declarative memories that are then stored elsewhere in the brain. ACh, is also involved in the memory function of the hippocampus.
What is the cerebral cortex?
Controls complex thought processes
What is the thalamus?
Part of the forebrain that relays information from the sensory organs to the cerebral cortex. located in front of and above the pons, and just below the corpus callosum. Like a triage nurse. acts like a relay station. located in center of brain. deals with hearing, sight, touch, or taste
What is the cerebellum?
Part of the hindbrain that controls balance and maintains muscle coordination. located at the base of the skull, behind the pons and below the main part of the brain. looks like a small brain.controls all involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement. also coordinates voluntary movements that have to happen in rapid succession like walking sakating dancing playing a musicalinstrument and even the movements of speech. learned reflexes, skills and habits are also stored here. may be involved with higher funtions
What is the reticular formation?
a system of nerves running form the hindbrain and through the midbrain to the cerebral cortex, controlling arousal and attention. allows people to ignore constant unchanging information. become alert to changing information.
What is the reticular activating system?
stimulates the upper part of the brain, keeping people awake and alert.
What is spinocerebellar degeneration?
cerebellum deterioration that have tremors, an unsteady walk, slurred speech, dizziness, and muscle weakness.
What is the olfactory bulbs?
a special part of the brain that signals from the neurons in the sinus cavity go directly into it. Just under the front part of the brain. Smell is the only sense that does not have to first pass through the thalamus.
What is the Amygdala?
Located near the hippocampus. Is involved in fear responses and memory of fear. information from senses goes straight here before the upper part of the brian is involved, so that people can respond to danger quickly.
What is the cingulate cortex?
is the limbis structure that is actually found in the cortex. found right above the corpus xallosum in the frontal and parietal lobes and plays a role in emotional and cognitive processing. Can be divided up into four regions that play different roles in processing emotional, cognitive, and autonomic information.
What is the cortex?
is the outermost part of the brain, which is the part of the brain most people picture when they think of what the brain looks like. is made of tightly packed neurons and actually is only about one tenth of an inch thick on average. is full of wrinkles.
what are cerebral hemispheres?
the cortex is divided into two sections. they are connected by a thick, tough band of neural fibers (axons) called the corpus callosum. each hemisphere is divided into four sections or lobes by looking at the deeper wrinkes or fissures. The lobes are names for the skull bones that cover them.
What are the four lobes called?
Occipital lobes, parietal lobes, temporal lobes, and frontal lobes.
What is the occipital lobes?
at the base of the cortex, toward the back of the brain. processes visual information form the eyes in the primary visual cortex.
What is the parietal lobe?
located at the top and back of the brain just under the parietal bone in the skull. This area contains the somatosensory cortex, an area of neurons at the front of the parietal lobe on either side of the brain. processes information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temp, and body position.
What is the temporal lobe?
found just behind the temples of the head. They contain the primary auditory cortex and the auditory association area. found in the left temporal love is an area that in most people is particularly involved with language.
What is the frontal lobe?
These lobes are at the front of the brain. Here are found all the gigher mental functions of the brain, planning, personality, memory storage, complex decision making, and areas devoted to language. also helps in controlling emotions by means of its connection to the limbic system. Also contains the motor cortex
What is the prefrontal cortex?
the most foreward part fo the frontal lboe.
What is the medial prefrontal cortex?
the middle area toward the center.
What is the orbitofrontal prefrontal cortex?
located right above the orbits of the eye
What is the motor cortex?
a band of neurons located at the back of each lobe. controls the movements of the body’s voluntary muscles by sending commands out to the somatic divistion of the peripheral nervous system. is laid out just like the somatosensory cortex, which is right next to the parietal lobe.
What are mirror neurons?
neurons that fire when an animal performs an action, but also fire when an animal observes that same action being performed by another.
What are association areas?
are made up of neurons in the cortex that are devoted to making connections between the sensory information coming into the brain and stored memories, images, and knowleged. help people make sense of the incoming snsory imput.
What is Broca’s area?
Located in the left frontal lobe of most pople. it is the area of the brain devoted to the production of speech.
What is broca’s aphasia?
the inability to use or understand either written or spoken language.
What is wernickes area?
left temporal lobe. person can speak fluently and pronounce words correctly, but the words would be the wrong ones.
