Chapter 2: Mortgages Flashcards
- Legal and equitable mortgages
This chapter will explore the law of mortgages in detail. As you know, a mortgage is a bundle of proprietary rights granted to the lender (the mortgagee) as security for a loan.
But, how do you create a mortgage?
What formalities must be used?
If mortgages can be both legal and equitable interests, how do you determine the status of a particular agreement? These questions will be answered in this part of the chapter.
1.1 Legal mortgages
Per LPA 1925, s 1(2)(c) a mortgage is capable of being a legal interest in land. In order to be recognised as a legal interest, the mortgage must be created in compliance with the
formalities for a legal interest over registered land.
LPA 1925, s 52
Per LPA 1925, s 52, all legal interests must be created by deed. In order to be valid, the deed must comply with the requirements of LP(MP)A 1989, s 1. As a reminder (you have already come across the requirements of a deed in chapter 1) these are:
* A deed must be clear on the face of the document that it is intended to be a deed.
* The deed must be validly executed.
* The deed must be delivered.
The mortgage deed must then be registered at the Land Registry (LRA 2002, s 27(2)(f)).
If it is not registered, the mortgage will not take effect as a legal mortgage in the land (s 27(1)) but
could still be an equitable interest.
1.2 Equitable mortgages
An equitable mortgage can arise for a number of reasons. The two you are most likely to encounter are:
* Mortgage of an equitable interest; and
* Defective legal mortgage.
1.2.1 Mortgage of an equitable interest
Where the borrower holds an equitable interest in the land (ie they are not a legal owner, eg a beneficiary of a trust in land), any mortgage of that interest will be equitable in nature. Such a
mortgage can be created very informally. In accordance with LPA 1925, s 53(1)(c) such a mortgage need only be in writing and signed by the grantor in order to be validly created.
1.2.2 Defective legal mortgage
A mortgage over the registered estate which is not granted by a valid deed or that is not completed by registration will not take effect as a legal mortgage (it will be defective).
However, it may be regarded as an equitable mortgage if it complies with LP(MP)A 1989, s 2. Equity will recognise it as a ‘contract to grant a legal mortgage’ providing it is in writing, contains all the agreed terms and is signed by both the mortgagor and mortgagee.
1.3 Discharge of mortgages
Once a mortgage has been repaid in full, the mortgage entries at the Land Registry must be cancelled. A mortgage is only considered to be fully discharged when all reference to it has been removed from the charges register at the Land Registry Discharge of a registered charge is done by using a specific Land Registry form. A DS1 form is used to discharge a mortgage over the whole of the land in a title. If only part of the land in the title is being released from the mortgage, for example if only part of
the land is being sold to a buyer, a DS3 form is used.
- The equity of redemption
2.1 Introduction to the equity of redemption
Historically, a mortgage arrangement was governed by the law of contract. Every mortgage deed had a date specified on which the borrower had to repay the loan in full, known as the legal date for redemption. If payment was not made on that date, the borrower forfeited the property
to the lender, even if the amount owed was small compared to the overall value. Equity intervened
to soften this harshness by allowing the borrower to repay the loan at any time after the legal date for redemption had passed.
Equitable right to redeem & Equity of Redemption
This is known as the equitable right to redeem, and recognises that a mortgage is security for a loan and not an opportunity for the lender to gain something more. Equity recognises the borrower as the true owner of the property and protects the borrower’s rights as owner. These rights, which include the equitable right to redeem, are collectively known as the equity of redemption: essentially they prevent the borrower from exploitation by the lender.
In addition to recognising the equitable right to redeem, the equity of redemption protects the
borrower from clauses postponing or preventing redemption, collateral advantages and unconscionable terms. The equity of redemption has a financial value, commonly referred to as the ‘equity’ that people
have in their homes, being the market value less the outstanding debt.
2.2 Postponement of the right to redeem
It seems obvious to say that lenders only make money from borrowers whilst the loan is outstanding. It is in the lender’s interest to keep the borrower ‘on the hook’ for as long as possible. One way of doing this is to push back the legal date for redemption as far as possible, as that date is the first day on which the loan can be repaid: the equitable right to redeem arises on the following day.
Courts look at clauses which postpone the legal date for redemption very closely and will not
allow a clause which prevents redemption altogether: Toomes v Conset (1745) 3 Atk 261. They
may allow a lender to postpone the date, but bear in mind the equitable rule that there must be no clog or fetter on the equity of redemption. This is a question of fact and degree. Two contrasting cases illustrate the point perfectly.
Key case: Fairclough v Swan Brewery Co Ltd [1912] AC 565
Facts: Fairclough mortgaged the lease of his pub to Swan Brewery. At the time of the mortgage the lease had 17.5 years left to run. A clause in the mortgage deed postponed the legal date for redemption (and therefore the equitable right to redeem too) until six weeks before the lease
expired. The borrower wished to redeem early.
Held: The clause postponing redemption was struck out and the borrower was permitted to redeem earlier. The clause was a fetter on the equity of redemption because it prevented the borrower from getting back anything of any value. A lease with only six weeks left to run would be virtually worthless, making the mortgage in reality irredeemable.
Key case: Knightsbridge Estates Trust Ltd v Byrne [1939] Ch 441
Facts: The borrower mortgaged the freehold of a hotel. The legal date for redemption was postponed for 40 years from the date of the loan. The borrower wanted to redeem early.
Held: The court upheld the postponement of redemption and would not allow early repayment.
The borrower would (eventually) get back exactly what had been mortgaged and the borrower
had been given a favourable low rate of interest as part of the mortgage deal.
2.2.1 Why was the postponement upheld in the Knightsbridge case but not in Fairclough?
Fairclough:
* The estate being mortgaged was a leasehold – a depreciating asset.
* The borrower could not get back exactly what it had mortgaged on redemption. A lease with 17.5 years left to run on the term is very different in value to a lease with six weeks left to run.
2.2.1 Why was the postponement upheld in the Knightsbridge case but not in Fairclough?
Knightsbridge:
* The estate being mortgaged was freehold (and was commercial premises).
* A freehold estate is enduring and rarely loses value. The borrower would get back exactly what
they mortgaged on redemption.
* The deal also favoured the borrower – it got something in return for the postponed redemption
date.
Knightsbridge v Byrne
The outcome in Knightsbridge v Byrne may have been different if the mortgage had been granted
over a domestic property. Although domestic borrowers are often ‘locked in’ for a period of time, this rarely exceeds a few years. It is also possible for the borrower to redeem during the ‘lock in’ period, but inevitably a fee would be payable for the privilege. These arrangements are unlikely to be declared void as long as the borrower is offered a clear advantage, usually in terms of a low interest rate, in exchange for the lock in, understood precisely what was involved and made an
informed decision to proceed.
2.2.2 Options to purchase
A mortgage may include an option for the lender to purchase the mortgaged property. This is a
proprietary right for the lender to require the borrower transfer the property to it at some point in
the future (an estate contract). Such terms may be declared void as preventing the exercise of the
equitable right to redeem. If the lender has the opportunity to buy the property, the borrower
inevitably loses the right to take the property back free of the loan, which is fundamental to the
nature of a mortgage as security. This is a ‘clog’ on the equity of redemption, and equity will strike
such terms down, especially in domestic cases.
Samuel v Jarrah Timber and Wood
Paving Corporation Ltd [1904] AC
323
An option granted at the same time as the mortgage will normally be declared invalid.
Reeve v Lisle [1902] AC 461
If an option is granted in a subsequent transaction it may be upheld if independent of the mortgage.
Warnborough v Garmite [2003]
EWCA Civ 1544
If the mortgage and option are granted on the same day, but are in fact completely separate, the equity of redemption is irrelevant, and the option can be upheld. The court said that it must look at the ‘substance of a transaction’ to ascertain whether it is substantially a mortgage or not. The label given at the time to the
transaction is irrelevant.
2.3 Collateral advantages
Lenders are entitled only to the repayment of capital advanced plus interest. If a lender tries to extract additional value from the borrower, the offending term in the mortgage deed may be struck out as being contrary to the equity of redemption. The mortgage is not to be regarded as an opportunity to take anything from the borrower other than the repayment of money. A collateral advantage will be struck out if it is unconscionable, in the nature of a penalty, or if it is repugnant to the equitable right to redeem
2.3 Collateral advantages
A typical example of a collateral advantage in commercial transactions is the solus tie. In these
cases, the lenders are often breweries or oil companies. The lender makes it a condition of the
mortgage that the borrower buys all its supplies from the lender. For example, if a borrower borrows from a brewery to fund a pub purchase, the lender will impose a solus tie in the mortgage conditions obliging the borrower to buy all beers, wines and spirits from the lender. The interest
rate may well be lower than in a deal which does not involve the solus tie, so the borrower is getting something in return too.
Generally, solus ties are upheld in commercial transactions if they end within the mortgage
term
Key case: Noakes & Co Ltd v Rice [1902] AC 24
Facts: The borrower mortgaged his leasehold pub to a brewery. The pub was a freehouse, meaning that beers from any brewery could be sold there. The mortgage included a solus tie requiring the borrower to sell only beer brewed by the lender. This tie was to last for the lease
term, even if the loan had been repaid.
Held: The solus tie was void as it exceeded the mortgage term. The borrower would not get back
what he had mortgaged, because at the end of the term what had been a freehouse would be a pub still subject to the solus tie.
Key case: Biggs v Hoddinott [1898] 2 Ch 307
Facts: The borrower mortgaged his freehold pub to a brewery. The mortgage included a covenant
by the borrower to buy beer exclusively from the lender for the duration of the mortgage, which
could not be redeemed for five years. After two years the borrower argued the solus tie was a clog on the equity of redemption.
Held: Lord Justice Chitty refused to declare the tie void, saying that it is possible for the lender to
gain a collateral advantage to himself, as long as it is not unconscionable or oppressive.
2.4 Unconscionable terms
The equity of redemption gives the borrower protection from unconscionable terms.
Courts have a well-established inherent equitable jurisdiction to strike out oppressive and
unconscionable terms. For courts to interfere, the term in question must be more than simply ‘unfair’ or ‘unreasonable’. Not surprisingly, it is high interest rates which have attracted most attention.