Chapter 2: Luther’s early challenge to the Catholic Church

Question 1

How was Luther first introduced to religion?

Answer 1

His parents raised him a devout Catholic.

Question 2

What was Luther’s mother’s background like?

Answer 2

Skilled workers, businessmen and politicians

Question 3

What did Luther’s father do?

Answer 3

Owned mines, a successful businessman

Question 4

How accurate were Luther’s claims of being from a poor background?

Answer 4

Largely untrue or exaggerated. His mother’s family background were educated professionals and his father was a successful businessman.

Question 5

What was Luther’s early education like?

Answer 5

Strict, academic and included religious studies.

Question 6

When did Luther attend Erfurt? What did he study and then switch to?

Answer 6

1500/01; Law but later theology

Question 7

When did Luther join the Augustinians?

Answer 7

1505

Question 8

When was Luther ordained a priest?

Answer 8

1507

Question 9

Who was Luther’s mentor? What was his occupation?

Answer 9

Johann von Staupitz; head of the Augustinian Order and WittenbergU’s first Dean of Theology

Question 10

What did von Staupitz teach Luther about salvation?

Answer 10

It was predestined, and there was nothing men could do to ensure their salvation.

Question 11

How did Rome teach one was saved?

Answer 11

Through good works, such as the sacraments e.g. penance, pilgrimages, buying indulgences, paying tithes.

Question 12

How did Theology at the UofErfurt influence Luther’s beliefs?

Answer 12

Their focus on Nominalism taught that truth could only be found through faith, inspiring Luther’s idea of ‘sola fide’.

Question 13

What was Humanists’ focus on?

Answer 13

• Studying works of the Early Church in context
• Emphasised self-study of the Bible

Question 14

When did Luther visit Rome on behalf of the Augustinians?

Answer 14

1510

Question 15

What was Luther’s impression of Rome?

Answer 15

He was dismayed by the worldliness and immorality of the clergy in Rome.

Question 16

When did Luther transfer to Wittenberg?

Answer 16

1511

Question 17

What did Luther do in 1512?

Answer 17

Finished his doctorate of Theology and became a Professor of Biblical Theology at WittenbergU.

Question 18

When universities were debating teaching methods of theology, which approach did Luther take?

Answer 18

The humanist approach: focusing on study of the Bible, and the works of the Early Church, namely St. Augustine.

Question 19

How did Luther later disagree with his teachers at Erfurt?

Answer 19

He wrote an attack on the scholastic method in April 1517, supporting the humanist approach over teachings from medieval thinkers.

Question 20

What key idea of Luther’s developed from his dislike of the scholastic method?

Answer 20

Sola scriptura.

Question 21

How did Luther reconcile a benevolent God with Augustinian teachings about the futility of man’s actions?

Answer 21

He looked at St. Paul’s words: ‘the just shall live by faith’ (Romans 1:17)

Question 22

What does ‘sola fide’ mean?

Answer 22

Faith alone is the key to salvation. God is loving and merciful, sending Christ so all men had to do is repent and believe.

Question 23

What did Tetzel do in 1517?

Answer 23

He entered Saxony in April, using aggressive emotional tactics to sell indulgences.

Question 24

Why was Frederick the Wise angered by Tetzel’s sale of indulgences?

Answer 24

• Tetzel was employed by Albert of Mainz
• Albert of Mainz and his brother, FTW’s rivals, held 2 electorships
• While the pope’s indulgence was being sold, no others were allowed to be sold
• FTW had a collection of over 17,000 relics, due to go on sale in November, so would greatly lose revenue

Question 25

When and how did Luther publish the 95 Theses?

Answer 25

31st October 1517; nailed them to the wall of the Castle Church in Wittenberg.

Question 26

How did Luther argue that there was no theological basis on which to sell indulgences in the 95 Theses?

Answer 26

• Only God had control over purgatory
• Papal pardons could not release souls from purgatory
• Forgiveness was free from God for all who repent, and could not be sold

Question 27

How did Luther argue that the sale of indulgences was harmful in the 95 Theses?

Answer 27

• It detracted from the most important thing: preaching the gospel
• It undermined the sacrament of penance
• It discouraged better uses for money such as charity
• The poor could not afford them, and spent all their savings on false promises
• The papacy’s reputation was tarnished through Rome’s exploitation of poor Germans

Question 28

Why did Luther write the 95 Theses? How do we know this?

Answer 28

• To trigger an academic debate about the flaws of indulgences:
• It was written in Latin, suggesting it was aimed at an academic audience
• It was posted to a church door, where other academics and theologians would see it
• Possibly a critique of FTW’s indulgence sales:
• He posted it to Frederick’s church instead of the town church

Question 29

How did the Theses spread beyond Luther’s intended audience?

Answer 29

They taken town and printed in Latin, until they were translated into German and mass-printed within a few weeks.

Question 30

Why were the Theses so popular? (5 points)

Answer 30

• Timing: Tetzel’s indulgence sales had caused widespread concern among Germany’s educated elite.
• Tone: Luther’s tone was provocative, theatrical and colloquial.
• Appeal to German nationalists, anti-papalists and the poor: Germans were being financially exploited by Rome, and Luther’s Theses voiced the people’s concerns.
• Authorship: Luther was a respected Professor of Theology at a university founded by an elector.
• Printing press: the Theses were mass-printed quickly and therefore hard to suppress.

Question 31

How did Rome find out about the Theses?

Answer 31

Luther sent a copy to his bishop and another to Archbishop Albert of Mainz, who had it sent to Rome to check for heresy.

Question 32

What was in the letter Luther attached to his Theses when sending them off?

Answer 32

He expressed his concerns about Tetzel, questioned the scriptural basis of indulgences, and criticised Albert’s behaviour.

Question 33

How did Albert of Mainz react on receiving the Theses and why?

Answer 33

• Had the Theses and letter checked for heresy and sent it to Rome on December 13th, asking for action to be taken
• Albert was concerned by support for the Theses, as if Tetzel’s indulgence sales collapses, he would be in serious debt to the Fuggers.

Question 34

What four attempts were made to silence Luther?

Answer 34

• The Augustinians warned Luther against taking further action at Heidelberg (April 1518)
• A meeting with Leo X’s rep, Cardinal Cajetan, at Augsburg (October 1518)
• A negotiation with FTW conducted by Karl von Militz, the papal chamberlain (December 1518)
• A debate with Dr John Eck at Leipzig (June-July 1519)

Question 35

What was Leo X’s reaction to the indulgence controversy?

Answer 35

• He saw it as inconsequential, a squabble that would die down.
• He tasked theologians with creating a case against Luther, and asked the Augustinians’ prior general to silence him.

Question 36

What other concerns did Leo X have in 1518 that might have distracted him from how serious the indulgences controversy was?

Answer 36

• He was bankrupt
• He had been at war with Italy
• He thwarted cardinals’ plot to assassinate him
• He was trying to band together Christian Europe in a crusade against the Ottomans

Question 37

Why did Leo’s plan to silence Luther backfire? (4 points)

Answer 37

• The prior general delegated the task to Johann von Staupitz.
• von Staupitz invited Luther to talk at the Augustinians’ meeting in Heidelberg, asking him to avoid controversial topics.
• Luther was the guest of honour, saw public support en route to Heidelberg and was accepted by his order.
• He was even able to develop his ideas and made converts.

Question 38

Why was Frederick the Wise’s intervention successful and what impact did it have? (3 points)

Answer 38

• Leo X agreed to Frederick’s objection, as his support would be important in the next imperial election.
• Luther did not have to go to Rome as the pope had ordered, helping him avoid certain execution.
• Luther instead faced Cardinal Cajetan, Leo X’s representative.

Question 39

Who was Cardinal Cajetan?

Answer 39

A renowned biblical scholar, Thomist theologian and head of the Dominican order.

Question 40

When and where was Luther’s meeting with Cajetan?

Answer 40

October 1518; Augsburg

Question 41

What orders had Leo X given Cajetan before the meeting with Luther?

Answer 41

To demand Luther recant in full, and arrange an arrest if he refused. No debate was to be had.

Question 42

How did Cajetan and Luther’s meeting go down?

Answer 42

They debated various Theses and Cajetan refused all of Luther’s arguments. It resulted in a shouting match.

Question 43

What was the result of subsequent meetings between Luther and Cajetan?

Answer 43

Luther refused to recant and Cajetan dismissed him. Cajetan wrote to FTW declaring Luther a heretic and asking him to be handed over.

Question 44

What key two beliefs had Luther expressed at his meeting with Cajetan?

Answer 44

• Justification by faith alone
• The pope was not infallible

Question 45

How did Leo X attempt to get FTW to hand Luther over?

Answer 45

He sent his chamberlain, Karl von Miltitz, to give him a papal golden rose.

Question 46

Why did Leo X’s plan fail?

Answer 46

Maximilian I died, so all action against Luther was suspended pending the imperial election (he wanted FTW to stand as a candidate).

Question 47

What did Miltitz do while in Germany?

Answer 47

He visited Tetzel and severely reprimanded him (he died in 1519).

Question 48

How had the Dominican order been challenging Luther?

Answer 48

For 18 months, they had been in a pamphlet war, led first by Tetzel, then by Dr John Eck.

Question 49

What approach did Eck take to attack Luther and why?

Answer 49

Realising the doctrine of indulgences was questionable, he attacked Luther for challenging papal supremacy.

Question 50

Who agreed to host the Luther v Eck debates in Leipzig?

Answer 50

Duke George of Saxony, FTW’s cousin.