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BIO 241 [Exam #1] > Chapter 2 - Chemical Composition Of The Body > Flashcards

Chapter 2 - Chemical Composition Of The Body Flashcards

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1
Q

Physiological processes are based on __________ ___________, a general understanding of chemical principles is necessary.

A

chemical reactions

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2
Q

What is an element?

A

a substance that can’t be broken down into other substance by chemical means (ex. carbon cannot be broken down/converted into nitrogen)

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3
Q

How is an element related to an atom?

A

elements are made up of atoms. atoms are made up of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons)

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4
Q

Name the top 4 elements that make-up most of the body mass.

A

CHON
- carbon
- hydrogen
- oxygen
- nitrogen

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5
Q

What do you call substances that make up less than 0.01% of body mass?

A

trace elements (ex. iron, zinc, copper; metals)

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6
Q

Name the 4 elements that make up the least of body mass

A

CaP SCl
- Calcium
- Phosphorus
- Sodium
- Chloride

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7
Q

What is the smallest unit of an element that has all the chemical properties of that element?

A

atom (ex. carbon element is composed of several carbon atoms)

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8
Q

Name 3 subatomic particles and indicate whether there is a charge

A

proton (+), neutron, electron (-)

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9
Q

an atom is _________ which typically means that the number of ________ equals the number of ____________

A

neutral, protons, electrons

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10
Q

What areas of an atom can you find subatomic particles?

A
  • nucleus (protons and neutrons)
  • orbitals/electron shells (electrons)
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11
Q

What is at the center of an atom?

A

nucleus (protons and neutrons)

H has NO neutrons, only one proton

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12
Q

Compare atomic mass to the atomic numer

A

atomic mass: #p + #n

atomic number: #p
(may also equal #e in a NEUTRAL atom)

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13
Q

Orbitals or shells are ______ levels that surround the nucleus of an atom (electrons orbit the nucleus)

A

energy

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14
Q

If an atom has a neutral charge, what can you say about its number of subatomic particles?

A

the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons

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15
Q

If an unknown atom has 9 neutrons and 9 electrons total, what is its atomic number and atomic mass?

A

atomic number: 9
atomic mass: 18

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16
Q

How many electrons can be held in the first, second, and third orbital/shell.

A

1st shell: 2 electrons
2nd shell: 8 electrons
3rd shell: 18 electrons

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17
Q

The outermost shell is called the ________ _________. It contains _________ _________

A

valence shell
valence electrons

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18
Q

Atoms are most _______ when the _________ _______ is filled to maximum capacity

A

stable
valence shell

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19
Q

valence electrons in _______ outer shells participate in _______ _______

A

unfilled
chemical bonding

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20
Q

What are valence electrons

A

valence electrons are electrons found on the valence (outer) shell of an atom

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21
Q

If an unknown atom has 14 protons, how many electron shells are present surrounding the nucleus? How many valence electrons are present?

A
  • 3 electrons shells
  • 4 valence electrons
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22
Q

Define the Octet Rule. What can an atom do in order to satisfy the Octet rule?

A
  • octet rule states that an atom requires 8 electrons in its outer shell in order to be stable/non-reactive state
  • to satisfy the rule, atoms that do not have 8 valence electrons will gain, lose, or share electrons until they are surrounded by 8 valence electrons
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23
Q

What atoms are exceptions to the octet rule?

A

H (hydrogen) and He (helium) are stable with 2 valence electrons

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24
Q

What are compounds?

Name the two basic types of compounds

A

chemical structures with 2 or more atoms combines in a fixed ratio
(ex. H20, Na+Cl-, CH4)

  • molecular compounds (covalent bonds)
  • ionic compounds (ionic bonds)
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25
Q

How do you tell if an atom will become a molecule or an ion?

A
  • atoms with 4,5,6 valence electrons share electrons (molecule)
  • atoms with 1,2,3,7 valence electrons lose or gain electrons (ion)
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26
Q

If an atom has 7 electrons total, will it be a part of a molecule or ion? Explain.

A

molecule.

If an atom has 7 electrons total, that means the # of valence electrons must be 5.
atoms with 4,5,6, valence electrons will be part of a molecule compound/molecule

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27
Q

How do covalent bonds form?

A

covalent bonds are made by the sharing of electrons

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28
Q

a compound in which atoms are held to each other by covalent bonds is called a ______ _________

A

molecular compound

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29
Q

covalent bonds can exist as a ______, ________, or ________ bond.

A

single, double, triple

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30
Q

Compare polar vs. non-polar covalent bonds. Give an example of a molecule that is held together by each type of covalent bond

A

Polar covalent bonds is involved with unequal sharing of valence electrons between 2 atoms (H20)

non polar covalent bond is involved with equal sharing of valence electrons between 2 atoms (CH4)

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31
Q

What do electronegative elements do? Provide examples of an electronegative element.

A

polar covalent bonds form when an electronegative element is present in a molecule

electronegative elements attract electrons to itself

(ex. oxygen (O) & nitrogen (N))

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32
Q

In a “_____” molecule there is a “_______” charge; however, the net charge is still ______.

A

polar
partial
zero

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33
Q

Compare polar molecules and nonpolar molecules

A

polar molecules: polar covalent bonds; dissolve in water (hydrophilic); water soluble (ex. H20, NH3).

nonpolar molecules: nonpolar covalent bonds; don’t dissolve in water (hydrophobic); water insoluble (ex. CH4)

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34
Q

Explain why ions are charges

A

ions are charged because atoms either lose or gain electrons (they will have either extra protons or electrons, thus giving them a charge).

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35
Q

in an ionic bond, one atom _____ electrons to another so that both have ______ valence shells

A

gives
filled

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36
Q

Compare a cation to a anion.

A
  • both are in ionic bonds
  • cation: is the electron DONOR; becomes positively charges
  • anion: is the electron RECEIVER; becomes negatively charged
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37
Q

How are ionic compounds formed?

A

the attraction between cations (+) and anions (-) that form ionic bonds

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38
Q

How are ionic bonds made?

A

bonds made by charge attractions

ex. (- indicated ionic bond)
Na+ - - - - - - - - - - - Cl-

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39
Q

most ionic compounds ______ (______ ______)with no reaction when dissolved in water

A

dissociate
come apart

40
Q

What happens when an ionic compound dissociates/comes apart in water? What are ionic compounds typically known as?

A
  • negative side (-) of water is attracted to the cation (+), and the positive side (+) of water is attracted to the anion (-)
  • the water will form hydration spheres around the ions and keep them separated
  • known as salts, acids (H+), and bases (Cl-)
41
Q

What are hydrogen bonds?

What do hydrogen bonds form between?

A
  • weak bonds formed between 2 polar molecules based on opposite charges attracting (not based on electron sharing)
  • form between water molecules (electropositive H atoms and electronegative O atoms)
  • amino acids on protein to produce 3D structure of protein
  • two stands of DNA molecule
42
Q

What type of bond holds two strands of the DNA molecule together?

A

hydrogen bonds

43
Q

What are hydrocarbons?

What can you say about the amount of energy found in hydrocarbons?

A
  • hydrocarbons are molecules that contain carbon and usually hydrogen; non-polar and hydrophobic
  • high energy in bonds of hydrocarbons
44
Q

Name the different functional groups

A
  • hydroxl (OH): alcohol
  • animo (NH2): (part of amino acids) proteins
  • carboxyl (COOH): acid
45
Q

Name the four main categories of organic compounds

A
  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids
  • Proteins
  • Nucleic Acids
46
Q

What are carbohydrates also known as?
How can you identify a carbohydrate?

A
  • AKA sugars
  • names end in -ose
47
Q

Name the four main categories of carbohydrates

A
  • monosaccharides
  • disaccharides
  • oligosaccharides
  • polysaccharides
48
Q

Describe monosaccharides.

Give 3 examples.

A
  • simple sugars; one subunit
  • high energy source
  • ex. glucose, galactose, fructose
49
Q

What are the building blocks for other carbohydrates?

A

monosaccharides

50
Q

Describe the composition of disaccharides

Give 3 examples.

A
  • 2 monosaccharides joined together by a covalent bond

ex. sucrose, maltose, lactose

51
Q

What type of bond is involved with carbohydrates?

A

glycosidic bonds (covalent)

52
Q

glucose + glucose = ?

A

maltose (disaccharide)

53
Q

glucose + galactose = ?

A

lactose (disaccharide)

54
Q

glucose + fructose = ?

A

sucrose (disaccharide)

55
Q

glucose + _________ = maltose

A

glucose (monosaccharide)

56
Q

What process is used to build carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids?

Describe this process

A

dehydration synthesis

  • forms covalent bonds by removing an H atom from one monosaccharide, and an OH groups is removed from another to form H20
57
Q

Describe hydrolysis

A

breaks bonds between monosaccharides; adds water and splits the molecule

58
Q

What process is being done here?

glucose + fructose -> sucrose + h20

A

dehydration synthesis

59
Q

What process is being done here?

maltose + h20 <- glucose + glucose

A

dehydration synthesis

60
Q

What process is being done here?

lactose + h20 -> glucose + galactose

A

hydrolysis

61
Q

Describe an oligosaccharide

What is the function of it?

A
  • linkage of 3-10 monosaccharides
  • exists as glycoprotein/glycolipid
  • functions as “cell surface markers”
    (ex. ABO blood typing is based on glycolipids on the surface of RBC)
62
Q

Describe the composition of polysaccharides

Give some functional examples of a polysaccharide

A
  • linkage of 10+ monosaccharides (generally glucose)
  • starch: sugar storage in plants
  • glycogen: sugar storage in animals (in liver and skeletal muscle)
  • cellulose: cell wall of plant; indigestible for humans
  • chitin: cell wall of fungus
63
Q

What are lipids also known as?

Are they hydrophobic or hydrophilic? Why?

A

fats

hydrophobic due to high hydrocarbon content

64
Q

What are the four categories of lipids

A
  • triglycerides
  • phospholipids
  • steroids
  • prostaglandins
65
Q

Describe the composition of triglycerides

A
  • formed by linking 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids
  • has 3 covalent bonds; ester bonds
  • includes fats (solids) and liquids (oil)
66
Q

What is a glycerol?

What is a fatty acid?

A
  • glycerol: 3-carbon alcohol
  • fatty acid: long, nonpolar hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl (-COOH) at one end
67
Q

How are saturated fats made?

A

there are single bonds in the fatty acid chain

68
Q

How are unsaturated fats made

A

there are double bonds in the fatty acid chain

69
Q

Describe saturated fatty acids (# of h atoms/bonds, energy, what it forms)

give an example

A
  • max # of H atoms in HC chain
  • single bonds only
  • more energy available = more energy bc there are more hydrocarbon bonds
  • forms fats

ex: palmitic acid

70
Q

Describe unsaturated fatty acids (# of h atoms/bonds, energy, what it forms)

give an example

A
  • less # of H atoms in HC chain
  • double bond
  • less energy (not as many hydrocarbon bonds)
  • liquids

ex. linolenic acid

71
Q

Is this an example of a saturated/unsaturated fatty acid?

c - c - c - c - c = c -c -c -c -c -c

A

unsaturated fatty acid

72
Q

Compare the difference between fat and oil (state, chain arrangement, sourced)

A

fat:

  • solid
  • saturated fatty acids
  • saturated chains packed closely together
  • animal sourced

oil:

  • liquid
  • unsaturated fatty acids
  • unsaturated chains packed less closely together
  • plant sourced
73
Q

What are the two subcategories of unsaturated fatty acids?

Compare the two

A

cis fat
- found in nuts, fish, and corn oil
- healthy; keeps the heart healthy by increasing levels of good cholesterol

trans fat
- behaves as if it were saturated fat (solid at room temperature)

74
Q

What is the composition of a phospholipid?

What type of molecule can this be classified as?

A
  • phosphate group (polar)
  • glycerol molecule (non-polar)
  • 2 fatty acids tails/chains (non-polar)
  • amphipathic molecule
75
Q

Define an amphipathic molecule

A

is part polar and part non polar, which makes them hydrophilic and hydrophobic at the same time

76
Q

What is the important function of a phospholipid?

A
  • major component of cell membrane as a double layer; acts as phospholipid bilayer
77
Q

Why does the phospholipid bilayer exists as a mirror of itself?

A

its an amphipathic molecule, so the hydrophilic heads points towards h20, while the hydrophobic tails points toward one another.

78
Q

Describe the composition of a steroid?

Give an example

A
  • lots of HC -> non polar -> hydrophobic
  • 3 six-carbon rings fused to a one carbon rings, plus its functional group
  • ex. cholesterol
79
Q

Describe the composition of a prostaglandin

What are the functions?

A
  • fatty acid with a cyclic (ring) hydrocarbon group
  • have -COOH (carboxyl) as a functional group
  • ovulation
  • uterine contraction
  • inflammatory reactions
  • regulate blood vessel diameter
  • blood clotting
80
Q

What type of covalent bond is formed in proteins?

A

peptide bond

81
Q

Describe the composition of a protein

A
  • made up of amino acid chain
  • 20 different amino acids in nature (human body synthesize 11)
82
Q

Describe the “anatomy”/structure of an amino acid

A
  • contains central carbon that is bound to:
  1. amino group (NH2, protein)
  2. carboxyl group (COOH, acid)
  3. Hydrogen
  4. functional R group (variable; can be polar or non polar)
83
Q

Give some examples of proteins and their functions

A

structural proteins: support cells shape

enzymes: speed chemical reactions

antibodies: part of immune system response

receptors: cell signaling (receiving communication from other cells for regulation of cell activity).

carrier proteins: located across cell membrane to move things in an out of cell

84
Q

What is the association between protein function and protein shape?

A

the shape of a protein will determine the difficulty of its functions

(ex. simple shape = simple function)

85
Q

What are the four levels of protein shape/structure?

A
  • primary (1°) structure
  • secondary (2°) structure
  • tertiary (3°) structure
  • quaternary (4°) structure
86
Q

Describe the composition of the primary protein structure

A
  • based on amino acid sequence/chain
  • linear pattern
  • short chain of animo acids = peptide
  • long chain of amino acids = polypeptide
87
Q

What is a peptide bond? Where does the water come from in the formation of a peptide bond?

A
  • peptide bonds are bonds used to link amino acids together in a protein
  • when amino acids are joined, H is stripped from the amino end of the amino acid, and an OH is stripped from the carboxyl end of another amino acid -> forms H20
88
Q

Describe the composition of secondary protein structure

A
  • based on weak H bonds between nonadjacent amino acids (introduce bends/folds)
  • results in alpha helix and beta pleated sheet
89
Q

Describe the composition of tertiary protein structure

A
  • lots more bends/folds
  • formed between interaction between R groups of non-adjacent amino acids

four main types of R group interactions:

  • ionic bonds
  • H bonds
  • Van der Waals forces (interaction between identical R groups)
  • Disulfide bridges (formed between 2 nonadjacent sulfur-containing amino acids; S - S )
90
Q

Describe the composition of quaternary protein structure

What are its function

A
  • covalent joining of multiple tertiary/polypeptide chains/subunits

examples: hemoglobin in RBC (4 polypeptides), antibody (4 polypeptides), hormone insulin (2 polypeptides)

91
Q

Describe what happens during denaturation. What are some examples of things that can cause denaturation?

A

Denaturation is the loss of protein shape/structure, resulting in the loss of protein function

ex. ph and temperature

92
Q

Describe the composition of nucleic acids?

What type of bond is made between nucleic acids?

A
  • composed of nucleotides (5 carbon sugar; pentose, phosphate group, nitrogenous base)
  • linked by covalent bond, phosphodiester bond
93
Q

What are nucleotides made of?

A
  • five-carbon sugar (pentose sugar)
  • phosphate group
  • base containing N (nitrogenous base)
94
Q

What are the different families for nitrogenous bases?

Which bases pair together?

A

purine family (2 ring structure): adenine, guanine

pyrimidine family (1 ring structure): cytosine, uracil, thymine

  • A + T
  • C + G
95
Q

What are examples of nucleic acids? How are these examples formed

A

DNA: sequence of bases codes for amino acids to make a protein
- deoxyribose (sugar)
- phosphate group
- ATGC (nitrogenous base)
- double stranded/helix

RNA
- ribose (sugar)
- phosphate group
- ACGU
- single stranded

96
Q

Which nitrogenous base is exclusively found in DNA only? RNA only?

A

DNA only: Thymine (T)

RNA only: Uracil (U)

97
Q

What is the purpose of RNA?
What are the three types of RNA?

A
  • RNA is used to assemble a protein in the cytoplasm
  • messenger RNA (mRNA)
  • transfer RNA (tRNA)
  • ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

BIO 241 [Exam #1] (5 decks)

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