chapter 2: altered cellular and tissue biology Flashcards
1
Q
5 types of altered cellular and tissue biology
A
- adaptation
- injury
- neoplasia
- aging
- death
2
Q
with adaptation, cells adapt to their environment to…
A
escape and protect themselves from injury
3
Q
adaptation is ____ vs _____
A
physiologic vs pathologic
4
Q
5 types of adaptation
A
- atrophy
- hypertrophy
- hyperplasia
- metaplasia
- dysplasia
5
Q
atrophy is…
A
decrease or shrinkage in cell size
6
Q
hypertrophy is…
A
increase in cell size
7
Q
hyperplasia is…
A
increase in cell number resulting from an increased rate of cellular division
8
Q
metaplasia is…
A
reversible replacement by 1 mature cell type to another less mature cell
9
Q
dysplasia is…
A
deranged cell growth, not cellular adaptation but an atypical hyperplasia
10
Q
atrophy can lead to
A
entire organ shrinkage
11
Q
example of physiologic atrophy
A
thymus shrinks after infancy
12
Q
atrophy is most common in _____, ____, _____, and ____
A
skeletal muscle, heart, secondary sex organs, brain
13
Q
4 types of atrophy
A
- disuse atrophy (workload, neural)
- aging
- endocrine-dependent (hormonal)
- nutrition
14
Q
hypertrophy is most common in ____ and ___
A
heart and kidneys
15
Q
hypertrophy is an increase in cell size from increased accumulation of ____ in the cellular components and not with an increase in _____
A
increased accumulation of protein in the cellular components and not with an increase in cellular fluid
16
Q
triggers for hypertrophy are ___
A
signals
17
Q
signal types for hypertrophy are ____ and ____
A
mechanical (stretch) and trophic (growth factors, hormones, vasoactive agents)
18
Q
muscular hypertrophy tends to diminish with removal of _____
A
excessive workload
19
Q
physiologic hyperplasia can be____ or _____
A
compensatory or hormonal
20
Q
hyperplasia occurs in cells which can
A
regenerate
21
Q
_____ and _____ often occur together if cells can synthesize DNA
A
hyperplasia and hypertrophy
22
Q
In non-dividing cells only ____ occurs
A
hypertrophy
23
Q
____ hyperplasia is an adaptive mechanism that enables certain organs to regenerate (in the liver, skin, callus)
A
compensatory
24
Q
___ hyperplasia occurs chiefly in estrogen dependent organs (uterus, breast)
A
hormonal
25
_____ is reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another less mature cell type
metaplasia
26
dysplasia is...
abnormal changes in size, shape, organization of mature cells
27
dysplasia is not
a true adaptive process
28
dysplasia is AKA
atypical hyperplasia
29
dysplasia is associated with ____ and ____
epithelial tissue of the cervix and lung (respiratory tract)
30
dysplasia has a strong associated with
neoplastic growths
31
cell injury occurs if a cell is unable to
maintain homeostasis
32
when cell injury is reversible you have
recovery
33
when cell injury is irreversible it leads to
death
34
cell injury is classified as ____/____ and ____/____
acute/chronic and reversible/irreversible
35
4 common biochemical themes of cell injury
1. ATP depletion
2. oxygen and oxygen derived free-radicals
3. intracellular calcium and loss of calcium steady state
4. defects in membrane permeability
36
hypoxia is the ___ of ____
lack of sufficient oxygen
37
4 steps in hypoxia
1. ischemia
2. anoxia
3. cellular responses
4. reperfusion injury
38
cellular responses to hypoxia:
-
-
-
- dec. atp, causing failure of sodium-potassium pump and sodium-calcium exchange
- cellular swelling
- vacuolation
39
____ is the single most common cause of cell injury
hypoxia
40
Free radicals - aka ____ injury
reactive oxygen species injury (ROS)
41
______ occurs when excess ROS overwhelms antioxidant systems
oxidative stress
42
_____ is an electrically uncharged atom or group of atoms having an unpaired electron
free radical
43
free radicals damage these 4 things
1. lipid per oxidation
2. alteration of proteins
3. alteration of DNA
4. mitochondria
44
chemical cell injury occurs when there is a biochemical interaction between _____ and the _____
toxic substance and the cells plasma membrane
45
chemical injury leads to
increased permeability
46
a patient sustained a fracture of his R arm 2 mo ago, requiring a cast placement. what kind of adaptation has occurred in the skeletal muscles?
1. atrophy
2. hypertrophy
3. hyperplasia
4. dysplasia
1. atrophy
47
which of the following is the most common cause of cellular injury
1. free radical-induced injury
2. chemical injury
3. hypoxia
4. reactive oxygen species
3. hypoxia
48
falls, MV injuries, poisonings, errors in healthcare are ____ injuries
unintentional
49
intentional injuries include ___ and ___
homicide and suicide
50
4 types of injuries
1. blunt force
2. sharp-force
3. gunshot wounds
4. asphyxial injuries
51
leading cause of injury from errors in healthcare
medication errors
52
____ are due to the application of mechanical energy to the body resulting in the tearing, shearing, or crushing of tissues
blunt force injuries
53
___ and ___ are the most common causes of blunt force injuries
MVA's and falls
54
list 4 types of blunt force injuries
1. contusion vs. hematoma
2. abrasion
3. laceration
4. fractures
55
a ____ is bleeding into the skin or underlying tissues as a consequence of a blow that squeezes or crushes the soft tissues and ruptures blood vessels without breaking the skin
contusion (bruise)
56
a hematoma is a...
collection of blood in soft tissue or an enclosed space
57
a subdural hematoma occurs between
dura matter and the surface of the brain
58
an epidural hematoma occurs between
skull and dura
59
a _____ is the removal of the superficial layers of the skin and the injuring object
abrasion
60
a _____ is a tear or rip resulting when the tensile strength of the skin/tissue is exceeded
laceration
61
an avulsion is a
wide are of tissue pulled away, creating a large skin flap
62
fractures are when
bone breaks or shatters
63
sharp force injuries include these 4 things
1. incised wounds
2. stab wounds
3. puncture wounds
4. chopping wounds
64
incised wounds are cuts that are ____ than they re ____
longer than they are deep
65
incised wounds have ____ edges that are distinct and without _____
sharp edges that are distinct without abrasion
66
incised wounds produce significant _____ with minimal _____
significant external bleeding with minimal internal hemorrhage
67
stab wounds are a penetrating sharp-force unhurt that is ____ than it is _____
deeper than it is long
68
with stab wounds the depths of the wound are ____ and ____ without...
depths of the wound are clean and distinct, without underlying or associated crush injury
69
depending on the ____ and ___ of the stab wound it may have only a small amount of external bleeding but copious internal bleeding
size and location
70
puncture wounds are caused by instruments or objects with ____ but without _____
with sharp points but without sharp edges
71
puncture wounds have ____ of wound edges
abrasion
72
gun shot wounds: _____ has blow-back and muzzle imprint
contact range entrance wound
73
gun shot wounds: _____ has tattooing and stippling
intermediate range entrance wound
74
type of exit wound with gun shot wounds
shored exit wound
75
_____ occur when cells fail to receive or use oxygen
asphyxial injuries
76
____ is choking asphyxiation
suffocation
77
____ is hanging, ligature, and manual strangulation
strangulation
78
cyanide and hydrogen sulfide are
chemical asphyxiants
79
drowning results in
dry-lung drowning
80
4 types of asphyxial injuries
1. suffocation
2. strangulation
3. chemical asphyxiation
4. drowning
81
an infectious injury occurs due to
pathogenicity of a microorganism
82
disease-producing potential depends on:
1. invasion and destruction
2. toxin production
3. production of hypersensitivity reactions
83
cellular membranes are injured by direct contact with _____ and _____ of the immune and inflammatory responses
cellular and chemical components
84
phagocytic cells include
lymphocytes and macrophages
85
list 5 immune and inflammatory substances
histamine, antibodies, lymphokines, complement and proteases
86
inflammatory injury causes
membrane alterations
87
with cellular injury you will have ____
cellular accumulations (infiltrations)
88
7 types of cellular accumulations
1. water
2. lipids and carbohydrates
3. glycogen
4. proteins
5. pigments
6. calcium
7. urate
89
____ is the most common degenerative change with cellular accumulations
water
90
infiltrations by lipids and carbohydrates will cause
metabolic disorders (liver fatty change)
91
glycogen infiltration causes
glycogen storage diseases
92
type of pigment infiltrations
hemosiderin, melanin, hemoproteins, bilirubin
93
____ is cellular death leading to cellular dissolution
necrosis
94
necrosis is the sum of cellular changes after local cell death and the process of cellular auto digestion or ____
autolysis
95
cell death process (3 steps)
1. pyknosis
2. karyolysis
3. karyorrhexis
96
major types of necrosis (6)
1. coagulative necrosis
2. liquefactive necrosis
3. caseous necrosis
4. fatty necrosis
5. gangrenous necrosis
6. gas gangrene
97
coagulative necrosis occurs in the
kidneys, heart, adrenal glands
98
coagulative necrosis commonly results from
hypoxia (severe ischemia and chemical injury)
99
coagulation is caused by
protein denaturation
100
______ is commonly from ischemic injury to neurons and glial cells of the brain
liquefactive necrosis
101
brain cells are rich in _____ and _____
digestive hydrolytic enzymes and lipids
102
with liquefactive necrosis cells are digested by their own
hydrolases
103
in liquefactive necrosis tissue becomes ____/____ and walled off from _____(_____)
tissue becomes soft/liquifies and walled off from healthy tissues (cyst formation)
104
liquefactive necrosis is due to bacterial infection (like _____, _____, _____)
staphylococci, streptococci, and escherichia coli
105
____ is usually from tuberculous pulmonary infection
caseous necrosis
106
caseous necrosis is due to a combination of ____ and _____
coagulative and liquefactive necrosis
107
tissues in caseous necrosis resemble
clumped cheese
108
____ is cellular dissolution by action of lipases
fat necrosis
109
fat necrosis occurs in _____, _____, and other _______
breast, pancreas, and other abdominal organs
110
in fat necrosis lipases break down _______, releasing _______, which combine with calcium, magnesium, and sodium ions, creating soaps (aka _____)
lipases break down triglycerides, releasing free fatty acids, which combine with calcium, magnesium, and sodium ions, creating soaps (aka saponification)
111
necrotic tissue appears ____ and ____
opaque and chalk-white
112
______ is the death of tissue from severe hypoxic injury
gangrenous necrosis
113
dry gangrene is usually the result of
coagulative necrosis
114
with dry gangrene skin becomes ____ and ____ (____)
very dry and shrinks (wrinkles)
115
with wet gangrene, ____ invade the site causing _____
neutrophils invade the site, causing liquefactive necrosis
116
wet gangrene usually occurs in _____
internal organs
117
with wet gangrene the site becomes ____, _____, ______, and has a _____
cold, swollen, black, ad has a foul odor
118
wet gangrene has _____ associated with high mortality
systemic symptoms
119
_____ is a special type of gangrene caused by infection with clostridium sp
gas gangrene
120
with gas gangrene ______ produce _____ and toxins that destroy CT and cellular membranes
anaerobic bacteria produce hydrolytic enzymes and toxins that destroy CT and cellular membranes
121
with gas gangrene _____ form in ____ and ____
bubbles of gas form in muscle and soft tissue
122
gas gangrene is fatal if enzymes _____
lyse RBC membranes
123
death with gas gangrene is caused by
shock
124
apoptosis is "_____"
dropping off
125
programmed cellular death =
apoptosis
126
physiological apoptosis is the _____
development of body tissue
127
pathological apoptosis is the result of ______ or ______
intracellular events or adverse exogenous stimuli (ex. viral hepatitis)
128
3 characteristics of cellular aging
atrophy, decreased function, and loss of cells
129
cells become progressively ___ and ____
stiff and rigid
130
_____ is aka "poverty of flesh" and is the degenerative loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength due to aging
sarcopenia
131
_____ is due to mobility, balance, muscle strength, motor activity, cognition, nutrition, endurance, falls, Fx, and bone density
frailty
132
somatic death is the death of
an entire person
133
4 postmortem changes
1. algor mortis
2. livor mortis
3. rigor mortis
4. postmortem autolysis
134
in algor mortis the algor comes from the word in latin for
cold
135
with _____ the body slowly cools once the heart stops beating
algor mortis
136
measuring _____ can approximate the time of death
body temperature
137
body loses heat at a rate of ____ degrees per hour until ___ temp is reached
1.5 degrees per hour until ambient temperature is reached
138
rate of heat loss after death varies according to _____
envi. temp
139
with algor mortis true body core temp is taken ____ or ____
rectally or liver
140
once ambient temperature is reached ____ cannot be determined through taking core body temp
TOD
141
in livor mortis the word livor is latin for
bluish color
142
lividity is
black and blue
143
livor mortis is the
settling of blood in the lower (dependent) portion of the body
144
livor mortis causes
purplish red discoloration of the skin
145
with livor mortis, heavy blood cells sing through the ___ by ____
serum by gravity
146
livor mortis starts ___ to ___ after death
20 min to 3 hr after death
147
blood is congealed in the capillaries within ___ to ____
4-5 hours
148
maximum lividity occurs with ___ - ____
6-12 hours
149
rigor mortis comes from the latin word for
stiffness
150
the loss of ____ from body muscles after death causes rigor mortis (in which limbs of corpse stiffen)
ATP
151
rigor mortis starts __-__ after death
2-3 hours
152
rigor mortis progresses ____ (____ to ____)
downward, head to toe
153
in ___-___ the whole body is stiff/rigid with rigor mortis
12-18 hours
154
at around ___ rigor mortis starts to fade
2 days
155
once rigor mortis has passed ___ sets in
decay
156
which of the following terms best describes death of a cell from hypoxia, generally as a result of ischemia in the lower extremities
a. coagulative necrosis
b. liquefactive necrosis
c. fat necrosis
d. gangrenous necrosis
d. gangrenous necrosis
157
a patient with severe drowning was admitted 5 days ago and has been declared brain dead. what kind of cell death would you expect to find on autopsy of his brain
a. coagulative necrosis
b. liquefactive necrosis
c. fat necrosis
d. gangrenous necrosis
b. liquefactive necrosis
158
the ____ encloses the cell and controls the movements of substances across it
plasma membrane
159
the plasma membrane is a...
bilayer of lipids and proteins
160
the nucleus is surrounded by the ____ and generally is towards the _____
cytoplasm and generally towards the center of the cell
161
the ____ is the largest membrane bound organelle
nucleus
162
the nuclear envelope contains
two membranes
163
two main functions of the nucleus
cell division and control of genetic information
164
the ____ is a small dense structure composed of RNA, most of the cells DNA, and the DNA binding proteins that regulate its activity (histones)
nucleolus
165
the ER is membrane factory that synthesizes and transports ____ and _____ to most of the cell’s organelles
protein and lipid components
166
the smooth er contains _____ involved in the synthesis of ______
enzymes involved in the synthesis of steroid hormones
167
the smooth er removes ____ from the cell
toxic substances
168
the rough ER is responsible for ____ and _____
cells protein synthesis/folding and sensing cellular stress
169
lysosomes are _____ that contain _____
saclike structures that contain more than 40 digestive enzymes (hydrolyses)
170
____ are found in large numbers in most cells
mitochondria
171
mitochondria are responsible for _____ and _____
cellular respiration and energy production
172
the inner membrane of the mitochondria contains enzymes of the respiratory chain and are _____
responsible for ATP generation
173
____ is a network of flattened and smooth membranes and vesicles near the nucleus
Golgi apparatus
174
the golgi complex _____ and _____ proteins from the ER into _____
processes and packages proteins into small membrane-bound vesicles
175
vesicles contain digestive enzymes that break substances into their _____
basic components
176
microvilli are ____ that _____
cytoplasmic projections that INC cells surface area
177
microvilli are often found on cells whose main function is ___ and ____
secretion and absorption (epithelial cells in the digestive tract)
178
ribosomes provide sites for ____
cellular protein synthesis
179
the cytoplasm is an aqueous solution that fills the space between the ___ and ____
nucleus and plasma membrane
180
cilia are hairlike projections that propel ___ , ___, and ____ out of the body
mucus, pus, and dust particles
181
cilia characterize the cells that line the
respiratory tract
