Chapter 2 Flashcards
Notion of a Paradigm
*Paradigm (Thomas Kuhn)
= a conceptual framework or approach within which a scientist works
*A set of basic assumptions
*A general perspective
*An approach to conceptualizing the study of a subject and how to interpret data
Genetic Paradigm
- Almost all behavior is heritable to some degree
- Genes do not operate in isolation from the environment: The environment shapes how our genes are expresses & Our genes also shape our environments
- Relationship between genes and environment is bidirectional: Nature via nurture (Ridley, 2003)
Nature via nurture
*researchers are learning how environmental influences, such as stress, relationships, and culture (the nurture part), shape which of our genes are turned on or off and how our genes (the nature part) influence our bodies and brain. We know that without genes, a behavior might not be possible. But without the environment, genes could not express themselves and thus contribute to the behavior.
Genes
: Carriers of genetic information (DNA)
Gene expression:
process by which the instructions in our DNA are converted into a functional product, such as a protein.
many functions of proteins, including influencing the expression of other genes
Humans have how many genes?
20-25K genes.
function of proteins
many functions of proteins, including influencing the expression of other genes
Polygenic
-no one gene that will make someone depressed (more than 2 or 3, really is more like thousands)
example!
Heritability
- Extent to which variability in behavior is due to genetic factors
- Heritability estimate ranges from 0.00 to 1.00
- Group, rather than individual, indicator
the higher the number the _____ the heritability
the higher the number the greater the heritability
Shared environment
-Events and experiences that family members have in common
*e.g., Income level, child-rearing practices, parent’s marital status and quality
(families have same shared environmental factors)
Nonshared environment
- Events and experiences that are distinct to each family member
e. g., relationships with friends, events unique to the person - May explain sibling differences
Behavior Genetics
= Study of the degree to which genes and environmental factors influence behavior
- Studies estimate heritability of a psychological disorder but don’t explain how genes work.
e. g., twin/adoption studies
Genotype
-is it observable
Genetic makeup inherited by an individual
Unobservable
(what is in the DNA)
Phenotype
- Expressed genetic material
- Observable behavioral characteristics
- Depends on interaction of genotype and environment
Molecular Genetics
- Identifies genes and their functions
* Identifies differences between people in the sequence of their genes and in the structure of their genes
Alleles
Different forms of the same gene
Polymorphism
= Difference in DNA sequence on a gene occurring in a population
(example is the colorful birds?)
Current Molecular Genetics Research focuses on : 2 things
*identifying differences between people in the sequence of their genes and in the structure of their genes.
SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms)
= Difference between people in a single nucleotide in the DNA SEQUENCE of a particular gene
(has the same number but different sequence)
-falls under current molecular genetics research
CNVs (Copy Number Variations)
= Abnormal copy of one or more sections of DNA within the gene(s)
- Differences in STRUCTURE of gene
- Additions or deletions in DNA within genes
- falls under current molecular genetics research
GWAS (Genome-Wide Association Studies)
- Key method to examine SNPs and CNVs
- Isolate differences in the sequence of genes between people who have a psychological disorder and people who do not
(looking at a lot of people: comparing the affected vs unaffected individuals)
Gene-environment interaction
A person’s sensitivity to an environmental event is influenced by genes and vice-versa
Genes do not exert their effects in isolation so we need to consider _____
Gene-Environment Interactions!
Epigenetics
- can this be passed on
= Study of how the environment can alter gene expression or function
*Animal studies have shown that Epigenetic effects can be passed down across multiple generations from parents to children (and even grandparents to grandchildren)
Process by Which Epigenetics Influence Gene Expression
epigenetic marks->genes (on/off) -> RNA -> proteins -> cells -> person -> environment (environment can impact epigenetic marks)
Two Challenges of Evaluating the Genetic Paradigm
- Understand how genes and environments reciprocally influence one another
- Recognize the complexity of the task
* Several genes contributing to a specific disorder
* Each individual gene or genetic mutation may reveal a very small effect
* Putting all the small genetic pieces together to tell the gene via environment story for psychological disorders remains a very big challenge
Neuroscience Paradigm
- Psychological disorders are linked to aberrant processes in the brain
- Brain and nervous system are complex, so many things COULD go wrong
- Three major components of NSCI paradigm to discuss:
- Neurons and neurotransmitters
- Brain structure and function
- Neuroendocrine system
Neuron
= type of cell in the nervous system
*Four major parts: Cell body (= soma), Dendrites, Axons, Terminal Buttons
(label this)
Synapse
= gap between neurons
*Nerve impulse travels down axon to synapse
(-pretty sure this is an important area for drugs)
Terminal button contains :
- contains synaptic vesicles which contain several neurotransmitter molecules
- note: I think this is how get the firing of an action potential
Neurotransmitter
= Chemicals that allow neurons to send a signal across the synapse to another neuron
Presynaptic site:
-releases neurotransmitter
Receptors on postsynaptic site receive neurotransmitter
Receptors on ______ site receive neurotransmitter
postsynaptic
Neurotransmitters (functionally) may be:
- Excitatory – enhances the likelihood that the postsynaptic cell will create a nerve impulse
- Inhibitory – reduces the likelihood that the postsynaptic cell will create a nerve impulse
Excitatory
– enhances the likelihood that the postsynaptic cell will create a nerve impulse
Inhibitory
– reduces the likelihood that the postsynaptic cell will create a nerve impulse
Reuptake refers to:
the reabsorption of leftover neurotransmitter by presynaptic neuron
Implicated in depression, mania, and schizophrenia
Serotonin and dopamine
Implicated in anxiety and other stress-related conditions
*Norepinephrine- Communicates with the sympathetic nervous system
(sympathetic nervous system is activated when aroused)
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Inhibits nerve impulses (-less likely to send a signal)
*Implicated in anxiety
Ways in which neurotransmitters may contribute to psychopathology:
- Excessive or inadequate levels
- Errors in the synthesis of neurotransmitters at the metabolic level
*Insufficient reuptake
Faulty neurotransmitters receptors
Cortex composed of:
- Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal lobes (see Fig. 2.7)
- Six layers :( Just the top layer where the highest levels occur)
- Gyri (ridges) and Sulci (grooves aka the valleys)
*Note: Prefrontal cortex : (executive functioning like attention) planning, attention
Prefrontal cortex
- planning, attention
- which is used for executive functioning
Nervous system is composed of:
- White matter = fibers that connect cells between different areas of the brain and spinal cord( on the axons )
- Grey matter = cell bodies
- Ventricles = Cavities in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Grey matter
= cell bodies
Ventricles
= Cavities in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Anterior cingulate
- cognition
Hippocampus
- Memory
Hypothalamus
- Regulates metabolism, temperature, perspiration, blood pressure, sleeping, and appetite
((the five Fs))
Amygdala
- Attention to emotionally salient stimuli
Brain development
-what fraction of our genes are expressed in the brain
- Begins early in the first trimester of pregnancy and continues into early adulthood
- A third of our genes are expressed in the brain
Pruning
= Elimination of synaptic connections
The connections become fewer, but faster
*What percent of genes are expressed in the brain
*A third of our genes are expressed in the brain
Brain Networks
= clusters of brain regions connected to one another in such a way that activation in these regions is reliably correlated when people perform certain tasks or are at rest
e.g., default-mode network
(also i think the somatosensory process is an example)
Subdivision of the NS
- Somatic Nervous System composed of:
1) Sensory systems - bring information into the nervous system from the outside
2) Motor system (muscles) – carry out movements in response to sensory input - Autonomic Nervous System (Focus on Discovery 2.1)
1) Parasympathetic nervous system = “rest & digest”
2) Sympathetic Nervous System = “fight or flight”
how long does it take for cortisol to peak?
Takes 20-40 minutes for cortisol to peak
how long does it take for cortisol to peak?
Takes 20-40 minutes for cortisol to peak
The Immune System
*also affected by stress
involves a broad array of cells and proteins that are activated when the body is infected
Neuroscience Approaches to Treatment
- The use of psychiatric drugs continues to increase
- Antidepressants were the third most commonly prescribed medication for any type of health issue in 2013
- A person could hold a neuroscience view about the nature of a disorder and yet recommend psychological intervention
- Nonbiological interventions can influence brain functioning
e. g., psychotherapy can teach a person to stop performing compulsive rituals (effective tx for OCD), and this has measurable effects on brain activity
What was the third most commonly prescribed medication for any type of health issue in 2013?
Antidepressants
Evaluating the Neuroscience Paradigm
Good support for neuroscience approaches to treatments, but they are not the only approaches to use
*Challenge of Reductionism
= View that whatever is being studied can and should be reduced to its most basic elements or constituents
-Reduces mental and emotional responses to biology
-Ignores more complex views of behavior
*Challenge of Reductionism
= View that whatever is being studied can and should be reduced to its most basic elements or constituents
- this is a negative of neuroscience pradigm
Cognitive Behavioral Paradigm
- Rooted in learning principles and cognitive science
- Problem behavior continues if it is reinforced
- So how does one reduce the problem behavior?
Cognitive Behavioral Paradigm: To alter behavior, modify the consequences
- Time- out: Period of time without reinforcer
- Behavioral activation
- exposure
Behavioral activation (BA) therapy
Engage in tasks that are positively reinforcing
ex-depression see slide 48 if want
Exposure
A way to alter behavior, modify the consequences (Cognitive Behavioral Paradigm:)
*Anxiety will extinguish if the person can face the situation long enough with no actual harm occurring
critics of Cognitive Behavioral Paradigm
- Behaviorism and behavioral therapy have been criticized for ignoring thoughts and emotions
i. e., the way we think and feel about things influences our behavior - Thus, need to include cognitive and emotional variables to understand psychopathology and therapy
two people that started Cognitive theory
Beck and Ellis
Cognition
= Mental processes of perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, judging, and reasoning
Schema
= Organized network of previously accumulated knowledge
- What happens if new information doesn’t fit a schema?
- Reorganize the schema
- Construe information to fit schema
(falling under cognitive science)
(I think cognitive therapy looks at schema)
Reality Testing
a way to reorganize the schema
Implicit memory
= memory formed without conscious awareness
- A person can, without being aware of it, be influenced by prior learning
- People with social anxiety and depression have trouble with implicit memory tasks
________ have explored how the brain supports behavior outside conscious awareness
Cognitive neuroscientists
Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT)
- Attends to thoughts, perceptions, judgments, self-statements, and unconscious assumptions
- Cognitive Restructuring refers to changing a pattern of thought
- Changes in thinking can change feelings, behaviors, and symptoms
(I think part of the second wave)
The marriage of the two therapies: cognitive (schemas) + behavior ( awards/ punishment)
Cognitive Restructuring refers to
refers to changing a pattern of thought
Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
- Initially developed for depression, later adapted for other disorders
- Based on idea that depression is caused by distorted perceptions
e. g., Nothing ever goes right for me! - Therapist counters by pointing out favorable events.
“Third wave” treatments
- focus on spirituality, values, emotion, and acceptance
- Examples (discussed later):
- Dialectical Behavioral Therapy
- Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy
- Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
(falls under extensions of behavior therapy and CBT)
Factors cutting across the three paradigms
Emotions
Emotions
(cut across the three paradigms)
- Influence how we respond
- Help us organize our thoughts and actions
- Guide our behavior
Emotions (affect) vs Mood
*Emotions (affect) are fairly short-lived states
-Lasting a few seconds, minutes, or at most hours
Moods are emotional experiences that endure for a longer period of time
Moods
are emotional experiences that endure for a longer period of time
Components of Emotion Response
- Expressive: Behavioral and facial expressions (affective part = crying, laughing, etc)
- Experiential: Subjective feeling & How someone reports he or she feels at any given moment
- Physiological: Changes in the body that accompanies emotion
- Most psychopathology includes disturbances of one or more component of emotion
Ideal Affect
-show to be linked to:
- Kinds of emotional states that person ideally wants to feel
- Vary depending on cultural factors
- Western cultures value happiness as their ideal state
- East Asian cultures value less arousing positive emotions, such as calmness, more than happiness
- Shown to be linked to drug use
- More people in the US seek treatment for cocaine and amphetamines - stimulants associated with excitement
- More people in China seek treatment for heroin, a drug that has calming effects
Sociocultural Factors and Psychopathology
- Gender, race, culture, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status
- Some disorders affect men and women differently
- No country or culture is without psychopathology of some sort, but the conceptualization and meaning of the symptoms may vary
- Drugs and their effects vary by ethnicity
- Poverty is related to antisocial personality disorder, anxiety disorders, and depression
- Environmental factors can trigger, exacerbate, or maintain the symptoms that make up the different disorders
- Culture influences symptoms expression, availability of treatment, and the willingness to seek treatment
Which is the best (most effective therapy overall)?
Which is the best (most effective therapy overall)? *NONE is better than the other
- some are better than others for certain disorders
- CBT (cognitive behavioral theory) is just what insurance will pay for (and also may be shorter)
Which is the best paradigm for conceptualizing psychopathology
*No one paradigm offers the “best” conceptualization of psychopathology
describe the relationship between genes and environment
Relationship between genes and environment is bidirectional: Nature via nurture (Ridley, 2003)
cell have A and within A have C
-C eventually turns into proteins
- cells have chromosomes and within chromosomes have DNA
- DNA eventually turns into proteins
T/F Psychopathology is Polygenic :
TRUE
Psychopathology is Polygenic :
= multiple genes are involved
no one gene that will make someone depressed (more than 2 or 3, really is more like thousands)
These different genes are turned on and off at different times during development and interact with a person’s environment.
example of polygenic nature of phenotype
the skin
Polygenic inheritance
Polygenic inheritance describes the inheritance of traits that are determined by more than one gene. These genes, called polygenes, produce specific traits when they are expressed together. Polygenic inheritance differs from Mendelian inheritance patterns, where traits are determined by a single gene. Polygenic traits have many possible phenotypes (physical characteristics) that are determined by interactions among several alleles.
Two broad approaches in the genetic paradigm:
Behavior Genetics
Molecular Genetics
DNA
containing gneneti informaiton to enable an organism to manufacture alll teh proteins required to develop and maintain and organism when necessary
Chromosome
made of long strands of DNA
ways that Current Molecular Genetics Research can accomplish its goals (3)
GWAS (Genome-Wide Association Studies)
SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms)
CNVs (Copy Number Variations)
do Genes do exert their effects in isolation
NO: Need to consider Gene-Environment Interactions!
way to study nature vs nurture
Epigenetics is a way they are studying the nature via nurture study
*Three major components of NSCI paradigm to discuss:
- Neurons and neurotransmitters
- Brain structure and function
- Neuroendocrine system
A lot of drugs have to do with the inhibition of ______
Example:
A lot of drugs have to do with the inhibition of reuptake
(so instead of going back up into the neuron- it just stays there)
Example: cocain= the more continue to take it, the more dopamine will stay in the synapse
Ways in which neurotransmitters may contribute to psychopathology:
- Excessive or inadequate levels
- Errors in the synthesis of neurotransmitters at the metabolic level
- Insufficient reuptake
- Faulty neurotransmitters receptors
MAOI:
a type of antidepressant but can be dangerous. Monoanoxidase inhibitor. Prevents the enzyme from breaking down the neurotransmitter.
Levels of neurotransmitters could be result____ error
Levels of neurotransmitters could be result of enzyme activity error
Levels of neurotransmitters could be result____ error
Levels of neurotransmitters could be result of enzyme activity error
T/F : drugs affect the synapse but are mostly affecting reuptake
TRUE
What is the outside layer of the brain
-cortex is the bark (the outside layer of the brain)
*White matter
= fibers that connect cells between different areas of the brain and spinal cord( on the axons )
Subcortical Structures implicated in different forms of psychopathology
- Anterior cingulate - cognition
- Hippocampus – Memory (looks like a seahorse)
- Hypothalamus - Regulates metabolism, temperature, perspiration, blood pressure, sleeping, and appetite (the five Fs)
- Amygdala - Attention to emotionally salient stimuli
In regards to connections in the brain- Until the age of _____: then get ______
In regards to connections in the brain- Until the age of 2 have synapse formation. then get synaptic pruning
default-mode network
-an example of a brain network
default-mode network involves areas of prefrontal cortex and temporal lobe and is activated when people are daydreaming or thinking about the future or recalling memories
which system contracts the bladder ?
Sympathetic system:
Another way to deal with stress, besides the faster-acting sympathetic n.s., is via the _____
Another way to deal with stress, besides the faster-acting sympathetic n.s., is via the HPA axis
the HPA axis
in response to stress:
Hypothalamus releases CRF
Pituitary gland releases ACTH
Adrenal cortex promotes release of cortisol
Takes 20-40 minutes for cortisol to peak
Takes up to 1 hour for cortisol levels to return to baseline
CRF (CRH) = corticotropin releasing factor (hormone)
ACTH = adrenocorticotropic hormone = corticotropin
Interaction between stress: 2 players
Interaction between stress: the hypothalamus and the pituitary
Cortisol is going to be the result of stress
example of how the Neuroscience Approach to treatment can be a nonbiological interventation that can influence brain funcitoning
- Nonbiological interventions can influence brain functioning
e. g., psychotherapy can teach a person to stop performing compulsive rituals (effective tx for OCD), and this has measurable effects on brain activity
- how therapy can influence the neuroscience of a person’s brain
- what approach is this
neuroscience
Classical conditioning example
Pavlov and the dog
-associate an involuntary response and stimulus
accordning to the Cognitive Behavioral Paradigm: To alter behavior, _______
To alter behavior, modify the consequences
according to the Cognitive Behavioral Paradigm: To alter behavior, _______
To alter behavior, modify the consequences
according to the Cognitive Behavioral Paradigm: To alter behavior, _______
To alter behavior, modify the consequences
Systemic desensitization – two components:
(1) deep muscle relaxation, (2) gradual exposure to a list of feared situations, starting with those that arouse minimal anxiety and progressing to those that are most frightening
Ellis’s approach
RMT: was Ellis’s approach
*Cognitive science
*Cognitive science focuses on how people structure their experiences, how they make sense of them, and how they relate their current experiences to ones stored in memory
Consider the role of attention in psychopathology:
Consider the role of attention in psychopathology:
Individuals with anxiety are more likely to attend to threat or danger
(-falling under cognitive science)
Relationship of Schema to Attention
So people that are scared of animals are more likely to look at the scary pictures
-vs people who think all animals are wonderful: will pay attention more to the baby tiget
-schema 1: Beware all animals!
-shema 2:Animals are wonderful.
Where/what is the attention?
- ”when you are a hammer, everything looks like a nail”
- trying to focus on the organization of our thoughts
Cognitive neuroscientists have explored how :
Cognitive neuroscientists have explored how the brain supports behavior outside conscious awareness
example of a way that freud is NOT validated
-people with depression have more realistic view of themselves
NOT validating Freud
CBT: the cycle
behavior–> thoughts –> feelings–> behavior
this is a cycle that can go in either direction
what type of therapy attempts to change black and white thinking (absolute thinking)
Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
Evaluating the CBT Paradigm
Some cognitive explanations do not explain much
(Pure cognitive and pure behavioral do not work as much
Beck’s was designed specifically for depression so not as good for Schizophrenia )
Saying that a depressed person has a negative schema implies that she will think gloomy thoughts
But that pattern of thinking is part of the diagnosis of depression
The distinct feature of CBT is that thoughts are regarded as causing the other features of the disorder, such as sadness
Still need to establish where the negative schemas came from
Current research on CBT focuses on understanding mechanisms that sustain negative schemas in different psychopathologies
85% of psychological disorders include disturbances in :
85% of psychological disorders include disturbances in emotional processing of some kind (Thoits, 1985)
T/F Most psychopathology includes disturbances of one or more component of emotion
TRUE
Most psychopathology includes disturbances of one or more component of emotion
Example of how the ideal affect vary depending on cultural factors
- Western cultures value happiness as their ideal state
- East Asian cultures value less arousing positive emotions, such as calmness, more than happiness
Sociocultural Factors and Psychopathology: T/F antisocial personality disorder, anxiety disorders, and depression is related to great wealth
FALSE :
Poverty is related to antisocial personality disorder, anxiety disorders, and depression
according to the DSM IV : Hispanics have a high prevalence rate for
alcohol use or dependence
according to the DSM IV : whites have a high prevalence rate for
depression
