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Biology 2250 Anatomy and Physiology chapters 1 > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Major and Minor Elements of the human body

A

Minor elements:
sulfur, potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, and iron. (Less than 1%) body weight

Major elements:
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus (Almost 99%) body weight

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2
Q

Are these elements major or minor? sulfur, potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, and iron.

A

Minor elements

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3
Q

Are these elements major or minor? oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus

A

Major elements

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4
Q

List in order the nutrient composition of the human body from most to least

A
  1. Water (60-65%)
  2. Fat and protein
  3. Minerals (1.5%)
  4. Vitamins and carbohydrates (1%)
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5
Q

What is the reason we store very little carbohydrates?

A

When you eat carbohydrates, they are broken down into small sugar molecules in your stomach. These molecules are transported through your digestive system and then converted into glucose by the liver to make a usable form of energy for the brain and your muscles. Carbohydrates are stored in the body in the form of glucose or glycogen.

Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred energy source. The carbohydrates you eat provide energy to your muscles, brain and nervous system; facilitate the metabolism of fat; and ensure that the protein in your muscles is not broken down to supply energy. Because carbohydrates are so important to your bodily functions, any excess carbs you eat are stored in your liver, muscles and fat for future use.

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6
Q

Analysis of an item shows the following: Total weight :200 grams, weight of vitamins 3 grams, weight of water 116 grams, weight of minerals 3 grams, weight of fat 40 grams, weight of carbohydrates 3 grams, weight of protein 35 grams… Is this an animal or plant? Explain the reason for your answer.

A

This would be an animal because of the fewer carbohydrates as a percentage in our body.

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7
Q

What are the functions of water?

A
  1. Metabolism (involved in some chemical reaction)-Protein and carbohydrates are two nutrients necessary for healthy body functioning. They provide energy and are vital for growth and development. However, these two substances are useless to the body without water. Water enables a chemical reaction to occur which results in protein and carbohydrates becoming absorbable and usable by the body.
  2. Transports-Water is essential in the body’s transportation system. Nutrients and other necessary elements must be sent to all parts of the body in order to ensure functioning of every single body process, from respiration to muscle movement to digestion and waste removal. Without water as the movement medium, the body would not function.
  3. Lubricates- primary function of water is to serve as a lubricant. For example, it is found in saliva and is a substantial component in the fluid surrounding joints. Water is also in and surrounding body structures such as the brain, spinal cord and eyes. The water layer helps protect and cushion these vulnerable areas from shock and trauma that could otherwise cause significant damage.
  4. Cushions- Works like a lubricant
  5. Temperature Regulation-Water is an important agent in body temperature regulation. The human body cannot function unless this is maintained within a certain range. Water helps achieve this in two ways. Since water is slow to change temperature and is efficient at storing heat, the amount of water in the body composition, 60 to 75 percent, is a natural temperature regulator. Another way this nutrient is used by the body for this purpose is through the process of perspiration. As water evaporates from the skin, the body is cooled.
  6. Excretes Wastes- It helps excrete waste through perspiration, urination, and defecation. Your body uses water to sweat, urinate, and have bowel movements. … Your kidneys are also important for filtering out waste through urination
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8
Q

What are the functions of water?

A
  1. Metabolism (involved in some chemical reaction)-Protein and carbohydrates are two nutrients necessary for healthy body functioning. They provide energy and are vital for growth and development. However, these two substances are useless to the body without water. Water enables a chemical reaction to occur which results in protein and carbohydrates becoming absorbable and usable by the body.
  2. Transports-Transports. Substances are dissolved in water and moved throughout the body in water-based fluids (e.g., blood
  3. Lubricates- Lubricates. Water-based fluids located between body structures decrease friction (e.g., serous fluid between the heart and its sac and synovial fluid within joints
  4. Cushions- The force of sudden body movements is absorbed by water-based fluids (e.g., cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord)
  5. Temperature Regulation-Water is an important agent in body temperature regulation. The human body cannot function unless this is maintained within a certain range. Water helps achieve this in two ways. Since water is slow to change temperature and is efficient at storing heat, the amount of water in the body composition, 60 to 75 percent, is a natural temperature regulator. Another way this nutrient is used by the body for this purpose is through the process of perspiration. As water evaporates from the skin, the body is cooled.
  6. Excretes Wastes- It helps excrete waste through perspiration, urination, and defecation. Your body uses water to sweat, urinate, and have bowel movements. … Your kidneys are also important for filtering out waste through urination
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9
Q

In which reaction is water the product

A

Dehydration Synthesis

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10
Q

In which reaction is a substrate broken down

A

Hydrolysis

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11
Q

In which reaction are substrates combined

A

Dehyrdration Synthesis

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12
Q

What is the relationship between pH and Hydrogen

A

The overall concentration of hydrogen ions is inversely related to its pH and can be measured on the pH scale.

Therefore, the more hydrogen ions present, the ______ the pH; conversely, the fewer hydrogen ions, the ______ the pH.

  1. Lower
  2. Higher
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13
Q

What is the normal pH range

A

7.35-7.45

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14
Q

What is the pH of pure water

A

7

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15
Q

What are the units of pH

A

0-14 (NO UNITS)

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16
Q

A solution that has a pH of less than 7

A

Acidic

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17
Q

A solution that has a pH of 7

A

Neutral

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18
Q

A solution that has a pH of more than 7

A

Basic

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19
Q

Solutions with equal concentration of H and OH-

A

Have a pH of 7

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20
Q

Soutions with GREATER H+ than OH-

A

Are acidic and have a pH of less than 7

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21
Q

Solutions with GREATER “H”+ than OH-

A

Are acidic and have a pH of less than 7

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22
Q

Solutions with GREATER “OH-“ than H+

A

Are basic and have a pH of more than 7

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23
Q

What does OH- stand for

A

Hydroxide Ions

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24
Q

Solutions with a LOWER H+ than OH- concentration

A

Basic and have a pH of more than 7

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25
Q

What provides a measure of free hydrogens (H+) in a solution

A

An acid is a substance that dissociates in water to produce both an H+ and an anion. An acid increases the concentration of H+ (written as [H+]) that is free in solution

A base decreases the concentration of H+ free in solution.

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26
Q

What happens to the H+ as a solution gets more basic

A

Less hydrogen ions

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27
Q

Which has more hydrogen ions (acid or base)

A

Acid

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28
Q

Which can release H+ (acid or base)

A

Acid

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29
Q

Which can donate H+ (acid or base)

A

Acid

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30
Q

What can accept H+ (acid or base)

A

Base

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31
Q

What are ways the body maintains pH

A

Buffer (quickest), Respiratory System, Urinary system(Slowest)

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32
Q

The combination of an acid and its corresponding base

A

Neutralization occurs when a solution that is either acidic or basic becomes neutral (i.e., has a pH of 7). The neutralization of an acidic solution is accomplished by adding a base, whereas a basic solution is neutralized by adding an acid

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33
Q

What is an example of the buffer system

Note: Buffers can Accept hyrdogens AND release hydrogens

A

A buffer is either a single type of molecule or two or more different types of molecules that helps prevent pH changes if either acid or base is added.

A buffer acts either to accept H+ from added acid or to donate H+ to neutralize added base.

Both bicarbonate (HCO3−)and carbonic acid (H2CO3), for example, are present within the blood and serve as buffers.

Bicarbonate (HCO3−) accepts H+ as acid is added to the blood and carbonic acid (H2CO3) releases H+ as base is added to the blood to maintain the pH of the blood within the normal range of 7.35 to 7.45

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34
Q

Explain how the bicarbonate buffer system would maintain pH of the blood when an acid is added

A

Both bicarbonate (HCO3−)and carbonic acid (H2CO3), for example, are present within the blood and serve as buffers.

Bicarbonate (HCO3−) accepts H+ as acid is added to the blood and carbonic acid (H2CO3) releases H+ as base is added to the blood to maintain the pH of the blood within the normal range of 7.35 to 7.45

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35
Q

Explain how the bicarbonate buffer system would maintain pH of the blood when an acid is added

A

Both bicarbonate (HCO3−)and carbonic acid (H2CO3), for example, are present within the blood and serve as buffers.

Bicarbonate (HCO3−) accepts H+ as acid is added to the blood and carbonic acid (H2CO3) releases H+ as base is added to the blood to maintain the pH of the blood within the normal range of 7.35 to 7.45

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36
Q

Explain how the bicarbonate buffer system would maintain pH of the blood when a base is added

A

carbonic acid (H2CO3) releases H+ as base is added to the blood to maintain the pH of the blood within the normal range of 7.35 to 7.45

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37
Q

Explain how the bicarbonate buffer system would maintain pH of the blood when an ACID is added

A

Both bicarbonate (HCO3−)and carbonic acid (H2CO3), for example, are present within the blood and serve as buffers.

Bicarbonate (HCO3−) accepts H+ as acid is added to the blood and carbonic acid (H2CO3) releases H+ as base is added to the blood to maintain the pH of the blood within the normal range of 7.35 to 7.45

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38
Q

Explain how the bicarbonate buffer system would maintain pH of the blood when a BASE is added

A

carbonic acid (H2CO3) releases H+ as base is added to the blood to maintain the pH of the blood within the normal range of 7.35 to 7.45

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39
Q

How does the respiratory system respond to increased carbon dioxide in the blood

A

CO2 is indirectly acidic
The more carbon dioxide in the blood the more hydrogen ions we have and that results in a lower pH

Increase respiration decrases blood CO2

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40
Q

What decreased blood CO2

A

Increase Respiration

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41
Q

How does the respiratory system respond to increased carbon dioxide in the blood

A

CO2 is indirectly acidic
The more carbon dioxide in the blood the more hydrogen ions we have and that results in a lower pH

Increase respiration decreases blood CO2

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42
Q

How does the respiratory system respond to increased hydrogen in the blood

A

Increased Respirtation

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43
Q

How does the respiratory system respond to increased hydrogen in the blood

A

Increased Respiration

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44
Q

How does the respiratory system respond to increased pH of the blood

A

Increase in Respiration

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45
Q

What is the relationship between pH and carbon dioxide

A

Carbonic acid, Bicabonate ion, and hydrogen ion

An increase in Hydrogen= decrease in pH
A Decrease in Hydrogen = increase in pH

H2C03( Carbonic), HCO3 (Bicarbonate), H+ (Hydrogen)

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46
Q

What is the relationship between the bicarbonate buffer system and carbon dioxide?

A

Carbonic acid, Bicabonate ion, and hydrogen ion

An increase in Hydrogen= decrease in pH
A Decrease in Hydrogen = increase in pH

H2C03( Carbonic), HCO3 (Bicarbonate), H+ (Hydrogen)

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47
Q

What is the relationship between H+ and carbon dioxide

A

The more carbon dioxide= more hydrogen ions= a lower pH level

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48
Q

In what ways can the kidney help maintain blood pH\ explain each.

A

Excretion of H+
Productionn\Excretion of urinary benefits
Reabsorption of bicarbonate

Note: Kidneys decide what to keep and sends the blood and also kidneys decide what not to keep and sends to the urine to be excreted

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49
Q

In what ways can the kidney help maintain blood pH\ explain each.

A

Excretion of H+
Production\Excretion of urinary benefits
Reabsorption of bicarbonate (go back into blood)

Note: Kidneys decide what to keep and sends the blood and also kidneys decide what not to keep and sends to the urine to be excreted

Explaining each one down below:

Excretion of Hydrogen- Decrease blood pH happens when we have increase in hydrogen ions.

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50
Q

urine pH

A

4.5-8

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51
Q

In what ways can the kidney help maintain blood pH\ explain each.

A

Excretion of H+
Production\Excretion of urinary benefits
Reabsorption of bicarbonate (go back into blood)

Note: Kidneys decide what to keep and sends the blood and also kidneys decide what not to keep and sends to the urine to be excreted

Explaining each one down below:

  1. Excretion of Hydrogen- Decrease blood pH happens when we have increase in hydrogen ions.
  2. Production and Excretion of urinary benefits- Decrease blood pH when we have an increase in hydrogen ions . This is what we need to do: (increase excretion of urinary buffers. Example: Ammonium + Hydrogen = Ammonium Ion (NH3 +H+ = NH4)
  3. Reabsorption of bicarbonate: Note: when we have a lot of hyrogens we need bicarbonate. Decrease in blood pH when we have an increase in hydrogens ions. (this is what we need to do: Increase reabsorption of bicarbonate)
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52
Q

If the pH goes down what happens to the bicarbonate.

A

We need to lower the hydrogen ions to increase pH and bring to normal

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53
Q

The following is a buffer system in the blood: HP03- + H+. How would this reaction proceed after each of the following situations? what direction would it primarily go to?

A. Large amounts of hydrogen were added to the blood
B. Large amounts of a base were added to the blood
C. Something suddenly caused pH to increase
D. Something suddenly caused the pH to decrease
E.An increase in blood carbon dioxide
F.A decrease in blood carbon dioxide
G. Excercise

A

Answers:

A.
B. 
C.
D.
E. 
F.
G.
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54
Q

What would happen to each of the following if blood pH decreased?
A. Oxygen available to muscle cells
B.Blood hydrogen ion concentration
C. Blood Bicarbonate ion concentration
D.Increase urine Ammonium ion concentration

A

Answers:

A.
B.
C.
D

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55
Q

How would each of the following alter blood pH:
A. An increase in blood carbon dioxide
B. Increase in urine hydrogen ion concentration
C.Decrease blood bicarbonate ion concentration
D.Increase urine ammonium ion concentration

A 
Answers:
A.
B.
C.
D.
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56
Q

Solvent of the body

A

Water

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57
Q

Solvent + solute

A

Solution

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58
Q

What is used to dissolve substances

A

Solutes

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59
Q

Substances that are dissolved

A

Hydrophilic

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60
Q

Substances that are dissolved

A

Solutes

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61
Q

term for item attached to water

A

hydrophilic

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62
Q

term for item that is repelled from water

A

hydrophobic

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63
Q

How must items in the blood that do not associate with water be handle

A

Hydrophobic substances are “water fearing” and require carrier proteins to be transported within the blood.

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64
Q

What are items that do not dissolve in water

A

fats, cholesterol

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65
Q

The amount of solute in a solution

A

Concentration

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66
Q

What are 3 ways to express concentration. Explain each.

A

Mass\Volume: mass of solute per volume of solution. Example: 90 mg glucose per deciliter blood (mg\dl)

Molarity: Moles\Liter solution

Molality: Moles\kilogram solvent

Osmoles: Unit of measurement for number of particles in a solution.
Example: Milliosmoles: = (mOsm) - 1000 mOsm = 1 Osm
Represents number of dissolved substances (influences osmosis)
Osmolarity: number of particles in a 1 liter solution
Osmolality: *number of particles in 1 kg of water
*Blood serum expressed as Osmolality

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67
Q

What are 2 examples of concentrations of substances in mass\voulme in the blood\explain each.

A

Normal blood concentration of iron is within the range of 40 to 150 μg/dL.

Normal blood concentration of glucose is between 70 and 110 mg/dL.

Mass/volume is mass of solute per volume of solution. Results from a blood test are often expressed in mass/volume. Mass/volume percent is grams of solute per 100 milliliters of solution. For example, mass/volume percent is the unit of measurement for intravenous (IV) solutions.

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68
Q

What is one example of molarity and molality

A

Molarity: Moles of solute per liter of solution
Example:0.164 mol/L solution

Molality: Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
Example: 0.164 mol/kg solvent

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69
Q

What is one example of molarity and molality

A

Molarity: Moles of solute per liter of solution
Example:0.164 mol/L solution
A molar solution of glucose is made by placing 180.10 grams (its molecular mass) of glucose into a container and adding enough water until it measures 1 liter.

Molality: Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
Example: 0.164 mol/kg solvent
is the moles per kilogram of solvent. A solution of one molality is made by placing 180.10 grams of glucose into a container and adding 1 kilogram of water. Molarity and molality may be used interchangeably, subject to this caveat: The two values are the closest when the measurements are taken at 4°C. At this temperature, 1 liter of water is at its most dense, and its mass is exactly equal to 1 kilogram of water.

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70
Q

Unit of measure expressing the number of particles in a solution

A

Osmolarity

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71
Q

Unit of measure expressing the number of particles in a solution

A

Osmoles

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72
Q

What is osmoles used for

A

a unit of osmotic pressure equivalent to the amount of solute that dissociates in solution to form one mole

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73
Q

a unit of osmotic pressure equivalent to the amount of solute that dissociates in solution to form one mole

A

Osmoles

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74
Q

What is osmoles used for

A

a unit of osmotic pressure equivalent to the amount of solute that dissociates in solution to form one mole

Another means of expressing concentration is with osmoles (osm), which reflect whether a substance either dissolves, or dissolves and dissociates, when placed into a solution (i.e., whether it is a nonelectrolyte or an electrolyte). It is the unit of measurement for the number of particles in solution. The term osmole generally is used to reflect the extent a solution is able to alter water movement through osmosis.

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75
Q

What are 2 examples of this unit of measure

A

Osmolarity and Osmolality

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76
Q

What are the organic molecules

A

Molecules that contain carbon

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77
Q

__________ is the number of particles in a 1-liter solution, whereas _________ is the number of particles in 1 kilogram of water.

A

Osmolarity, Osmolality

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78
Q

molarity and molality are based on the number of particles in units called a ____________

A

mole

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79
Q

Biological macromolecules are large organic molecules that are synthesized by the human body. These molecules always contain the elements ______ _______, and ________

A

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

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80
Q

What are the organic molecules

A

Molecules that contain carbon

  1. Lipids
  2. Carbohydrates
  3. Nucleic acids
  4. Proteins
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81
Q

Biological macromolecules are large organic molecules that are synthesized by the human body. These molecules always contain the elements ______ _______, and ________

A

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

*Some biological macromolecules may also have one or more of the following: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), or sulfur (S)

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82
Q

What is the difference between organic molecules and inorganic molecules

A

Organic molecules are based on carbons, and inorganic molecules are based on other elements.
There are some molecules which are considered as inorganic molecules although they contain carbon atoms

Organic molecules are mostly found in living organisms where inorganic molecules are mostly abundant in non living systems.

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83
Q

What are the inorganic nutrients

A

An inorganic nutrient is essentially any compound or element that is not carbon -based, but is otherwise necessary to maintain health and optimum growth of a plant, animal, or human.

“As far as human nutrition is concerned, the inorganic nutrients include water, sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphate, sulfate, magnesium, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, iodine, selenium, and molybdenum. Other inorganic nutrients include phosphate, sulfate, and selenium. Inorganic nutrients have a great variety of functions in the body.”

84
Q

What is the difference between organic molecules and inorganic molecules

A

Chemists classify molecules into two broad categories—organic molecules and inorganic molecules.

Organic molecules are defined as molecules that contain carbon, which are (or have been) components of living organisms (e.g., glucose, protein, triglycerides)

All other types of molecules are inorganic molecules. Examples of inorganic molecules include water, salts (e.g., sodium chloride), acids (e.g., hydrochloric acid), and bases (e.g., sodium hydroxide).

85
Q

Water is present in three phases, depending upon the temperature

A

a gas (water vapor), a liquid (water), and a solid (ice).

86
Q

what are the water insoluble organic molecules

A

Lipids
Group of biological macromolecules including triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and ecosanoids.

Lipids are a very diverse group of fatty, water-insoluble (hydrophobic) molecules that function as stored energy, components of cellular membranes, and hormones. Triglycerides (neutral fats), phospholipids, steroids, and eicosanoids are the four primary classes of lipids.

87
Q

What are the elements that make up lipids

A

All lipids contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Some of them also contain nitrogen and phosphorus.

Triglycerides (neutral fats), phospholipids, steroids, and eicosanoids are the four primary classes of lipids.

88
Q

What are the elements that make a carbohydrate and Lipids

A

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

89
Q

What elements make up a protein

A

carbon, hydrogen,oxygen, AND nitrogen

90
Q

What are some examples of lipids

A

Triglycerides (neutral fats), phospholipids, steroids, and eicosanoids are the four primary classes of lipids

91
Q

What is the most common lipid in the body

A

Triglycerides are the most common form of lipids in living things.

92
Q

What are the components of triglycerides and how are these components joined

A

A glycerol and three fatty acid molecules.

The middle fatty acid is a saturated fatty acid, whereas the other two are unsaturated fatty acids.

The fatty acid is saturated if it lacks double bonds—that is, every carbon has the maximum number of hydrogen atoms bound to it.

An unsaturated fatty acid has one double bond, and a polyunsaturated fatty acid has two or more double bonds.

93
Q

What are the components of triglycerides and how are these components joined

A

A glycerol and three fatty acid molecules.

The middle fatty acid is a saturated fatty acid, whereas the other two are unsaturated fatty acids.

The fatty acid is saturated if it lacks double bonds—that is, every carbon has the maximum number of hydrogen atoms bound to it.

An unsaturated fatty acid has one double bond, and a polyunsaturated fatty acid has two or more double bonds.

When conditions of excess nutrients exist, adipose connective tissue binds fatty acids to glycerol to form triglycerides in a dehydration synthesis process called lipogenesis (fat production).

Adipose connective tissue breaks down triglycerides and releases the products into the blood when nutrients are needed. This process is a hydrolysis reaction called lipolysis

94
Q

What are some examples of lipids

A

Triglycerides (neutral fats), phospholipids, steroids, and eicosanoids , ketones, are the four primary classes of lipids

95
Q

What are the functions of triglycerides

A

For energy, structural support, cushioning, insulation, and fat soluble vitamin absorption

96
Q

Components of fatty acids

A

Chains of c, with H and O
Fatty acids may vary in length—commonly ranging in even numbers from 14 to 20 carbons—and may differ in the number and position of double bonds between the carbons in the chain.

The fatty acid is saturated if it LACKS double bonds—that is, every carbon has the maximum number of hydrogen atoms bound to it.

An unsaturated fatty acid has one double bond, and a polyunsaturated fatty acid has two or more double bonds.

97
Q

What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

A

The fatty acid is saturated if it lacks DOUBLE bonds—that is, every carbon has the maximum number of hydrogen atoms bound to it.

An unsaturated fatty acid has ONE double bond

98
Q

What are some types of unsaturated fatty acids

A

Monounsaturated: 1 double bond
Polyunsaturated: two or more double bonds

99
Q

What are the components of glycerol and how are these components joined

A

3 C with H and O

Glycerol is a three-carbon molecule with a hydroxyl functional group attached to each carbon.

100
Q

What lipid is the main component of cell membranes

A

Phospholipid

101
Q

What are the components of a phospholipid

A

Glycerol, 2 fatty acids, one phosphate
Phospholipids were previously described as amphipathic molecules that form chemical barriers of cell membranes, including plasma membranes that form the outer barrier of a cell.
The chemical structure of a phospholipid is similar to a triglyceride, except that one end of the glycerol has a polar phosphate group with various organic groups (choline, ethanolamine, or the amino acid serine) attached to it instead of a fatty acid.

The glycerol, phosphate, and organic groups are polar and form the water-soluble hydrophilic part of the molecule referred to as the hydrophilic (polar) head.

The two fatty acid molecules attached to the glycerol form a water-insoluble hydrophobic end called the hydrophobic (nonpolar) tails.

102
Q

Glycerol, 2 fatty acids, one phosphate

These are components of a ____________

A

Phospholipid

103
Q

Describe the structure of steroids

A

Steroids are composed predominantly of hydrocarbons arranged in a distinct multi ringed structure. A steroid has four attached carbon rings; three rings have six carbon atoms and one ring has five carbon atoms.

Steroids differ in the side chains extending from their rings. Steroids include cholesterol, steroid hormones (e.g., testosterone, estrogen), and bile salts.

Cholesterol is a component of animal plasma membranes as well as the precursor used to synthesize other steroids. Cholesterol is synthesized in the liver from fatty acids and may be obtained from eating animal products such as meat, eggs, and milk.

104
Q

What is the relationship between cholesterol and the rest of the steroids

A

Cholesterol is a component of animal plasma membranes as well as the precursor used to synthesize other steroids. Cholesterol is synthesized in the liver from fatty acids and may be obtained from eating animal products such as meat, eggs, and milk.

105
Q

Ketones are made from this organic molecule

A

Triglycerides

106
Q

Explain the difference between Monosaccarides, disaccarides, and poly - saccarides

A

The number of carbon atoms typically ranges from three to seven. The least complex carbohydrates are simple sugar monomers called monosaccharides.
All monosaccharides have between three and seven carbon atoms.

Carbohydrates that are dimers formed from two monosaccharides are disaccharides,

and those with many monosaccharides are polysaccharides.

107
Q

Examples of Monosaccarides, disaccarides, and poly - saccarides

A

Monosaccarides: One sugar molecule
Dusaccharide: Formed from two monosaccarides
Polysaccarides: Formed from many monosaccarides

Monosaccarides: glucose, galactose, fructose

Disaccharides: *Sucrose= glucose+ fructose

                      * Lactose = glucose + galactose
                      * Maltose = glucose + glucose

Polysaccarrides: *Glycogen = animal storage form of carbs (1000) of glucoses

  • Starch=plant storage form of carbs ( 1000s of glucoses)
  • Fibers= many fibers, in plants
108
Q

Most common monosaccaride in body

A

Glucose is a six-carbon (hexose) carbohydrate that is the most common monosaccharide

109
Q

polysaccarides in plants

A

polysaccharides in plants include starch and cellulose, which are also composed of repeating glucose monomers.

Plant starch is a major nutritional source of glucose for humans. It is found in potatoes, grains, and many other plant foods.

110
Q

What is the storage form of carbohydrates in animals

A

Glycogen

111
Q

What is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants

A

Starch

112
Q

Which stores more carbohydrates: animals or plants

A

Plants

113
Q

Which typically store more triglycerides: animals or palnts?

A

Animals

114
Q

What are the functions of proteins

A
  1. Enzymes
  2. Immune Defense
  3. Transport
  4. Structural Support
  5. Movement
  6. Regulation
  7. Storage
115
Q

What is the basic components of proteins

A

One or more strands of amino acids

  • amine group
  • carboxylic acid group
  • Functional group (R) unique

Amino acids linked by peptide bonds
Formed during dehydration synthesis reaction

  1. Dipeptide: 2 amino acids
  2. Tripeptide: 3 amino acids
  3. Polypeptide: Many amino acids smaller than proteins
  4. Protein: More than 200 amino acids usually in the 1000s
116
Q

What are the functions of proteins

A
  1. Enzymes
  2. Immune Defense
  3. Transport
  4. Structural Support
  5. Movement
  6. Regulation
  7. Storage

Serve as catalysts (enzymes) in most metabolic reactions of the body

Act in defense, which occurs, for example, when immunoglobulins (antibodies) attach to foreign substances for their elimination

Aid in transport, as when hemoglobin molecules transport respiratory gases within the blood

Contribute to structural support, such as collagen, a major component of ligaments and tendons

Cause movement, when myosin and actin proteins interact during contraction of muscle tissue

Perform regulation, as occurs when insulin helps control blood glucose levels

Provide storage, such as ferritin, which stores iron in liver cell

117
Q

Components of amino acids

A
  1. amino group,
  2. hydrogen,
  3. R group,
  4. carboxyl group.
118
Q

What are four major classes of biological macromolecules that compose the human body.

A

Lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins

119
Q

What type of bond holds amino acids together

A

Peptide bonds

they are formed during dehydration synthesis reaction

120
Q

Structural level of proteins from least to most complex explain each

A

The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids in the protein.

The secondary structures of a protein may include alpha helixes and beta sheets.

The tertiary structure is the completed 3-dimensional shape or conformation of the protein, which may be a globular or fibrous protein.

A quaternary structure is formed in some complex proteins when two or more protein molecules associate to form the final protein

121
Q

Example of protein with the quaternery level

A

The quaternary structure of a protein is present only in those proteins with two or more protein strands. The protein hemoglobin is an example because it is composed of four protein chains. Each of these chains has its own primary, secondary, and tertiary structures. Only when the four separate strands associate through intermolecular attractions to form the quaternary structure does the biological molecule of hemoglobin become active. Therefore, hemoglobin is functional only when all four polypeptide chains are present in the correct association.

122
Q

Number of different amino acids

A

20

123
Q

Exposure of a protein to boiling temperatures will cause this

A

Denaturation

124
Q

What levels of protein structure will remain after boiling

A

Primary Structure

125
Q

Testosterone

A

Steroid

126
Q

Cortisol

A

Steroid

127
Q

Carbonic acid- Bicorbonate ion + Hydrogen ion =

A

H2CO3- (carbonic acid)- HC03 (Bicarbonate ion) + H+ (Hydrogen ion)

To right: Increases H+, decreases pH
To left: Decreases H+, increases pH

128
Q

NaHCO3

A

Baking soda

129
Q

What is indirectly acidic

A

CO2

130
Q

The more carbon dioxide in the body the ____________ pH

A

lower

131
Q

The more carbon dioxide = the more ___________ and equals a ________ pH level

A

hydrogen, lower

132
Q

What happens when we have a decrease in blood CO@?

A

we will have an increase in respirations

133
Q

When we lose carbohydrates we also lose _______

A

water

134
Q

We have to have _________ to function

A

Carbohydrates

135
Q

We don’t store carbohydrates other than ___%, we store then as _________

A

1, fat

136
Q

What occurs during the SYNTHESIS of biomolecules

A

Dehydration Synthesis

137
Q

Smaller to larger is what chemical reaction

A

Dehydration synthesis

138
Q

When water is the PRODUCT

A

Dehydration synthesis

139
Q

Occurs during the BREAKDOWN of biomolecules

A

Hydrolysis

140
Q

Larger to smaller what chemical reaction is this

A

Hydrolysis

141
Q

When water is the substrate

A

Hydrolysis

142
Q

The pH is a measure of _________

A

Hydrogen
Amount of hydrogen in a solution
0-14 (no units)
-log H+ concentration

143
Q

When we have an increase in hydrogen ions what happens to our pH?

A

Our pH goes down

144
Q

-log [H+] is what formula

A

pH

145
Q

[H+] units Molar (M.moles per liter)

A

{H+]=10-pH M

146
Q

What is the amount dissolved in a solution

A

The concentration

147
Q

__________ releases H+ because of a ______ concentration of H+

A

Acid, Higher

148
Q

The most acidic is?

A

Hydrochloric acid

149
Q

The most basic (Alkaline)

A

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH

150
Q

How acidic is urine on a pH scale

A

6

151
Q

what is urine on a pH scale

A

6

152
Q

What is human blood on a pH scale

A

7.4

153
Q

when H+ is greater than OH-, we are _________ H+ and __________ pH

A

Increasing, decreasing

154
Q

What is the importance of pH

A
  • Enzyme function- a change in pH denatures enzymes
  • Mineral balance- Some minerals move with hydrogen
  • Oxygen-Hemoglobin binding (Decrease pH, decrease affirnity of oxygen for hemoglobin.
155
Q

A change in pH _____________ enzymes

A

Denatures

156
Q

if our pH goes now the _________ goes down, so therefore, ___________ and ____________ detach from each other

A

affirnity, hemoglobin, oxygen

157
Q

What help prevent pH changes if excess acid or base is added

A

Buffer

158
Q

__________ can pick up hydrogen or release hydrogen

A

Buffers

159
Q

When we have a decreased blood pH we have to have an __________in hydrogen ions and increase excretion of urinary buffers

A

increase

160
Q

solvent + solute =

A

A solution

161
Q

water loving (dissolve in water)

A

Hydrophilic

162
Q

Water fearing (Do not dissolve in water)

A

Hydrophobic

163
Q

_______________ substances require carrier proteins to be transported within the blood

A

Hydrophobic Substances

164
Q

What 2 things are unable to dissolve in water

A

fats, cholesterol

165
Q

Molecules that contain carbon

A

Organic

166
Q

What are biological macromolecules

A
  1. Lipids
  2. Carbohydrates
  3. Nucleic acids
  4. Proteins
167
Q

All other molecules

A

Inorganic molecules

168
Q

Fatty, water insoluble

A

Lipids

169
Q

Examples of lipids:

A

Triglycerides
Phospholipids
Steroids (cholesterol, steroid hormones)
Ketones

170
Q

What is determined by the amount of solute in a solution

A

Concentration

171
Q

90 mg glucose per deciliter blood (mg\dl) is an example of what

A

mass\volume

172
Q

Blood serum is expressed as _____________

A

Osmolality

173
Q

Most common form of lipid in the body

A

Triglyceride

174
Q

What is used for energy, structural support, cushioning , insulation and fat soluble vitamin absorbption

A

Triglycerides

175
Q

-3C with H and O

A

Glycerol

176
Q

Glycerol is a ___________

A

Fatty acid

177
Q

______________ occurs through dehydration

A

Lipogensis

178
Q

_____________ occurs through hydrolysis

A

lypolysis

179
Q

What forms cell membranes

A

Phospholipids

180
Q

What is a structure similar to triglyceride and consist of a glycerol, 2 fatty acids, one phosphate group

A

phospholipid

181
Q

a phospholipid is made up of __________, _____________ and _________

A

Glycerol, 2 fatty acids, 1 phosphate

182
Q

what is made from triglycerides and is used as a glucose backup for nerve function (including brain)

A

Ketones

183
Q

Ketones are made up of ____________, _______________, and _____________

A

Acetic acid, acetoacedic acid, hydroxybutyric acid

184
Q

________ are arranged in a multi ringed structure

A

Steroids

185
Q

Steroids include ____________, ________ hormones, ________, ________ and _________

A

Cholesterol, steroid, testosterone, estrogen, cortisol

186
Q

What is a component of cell membranes and precursor to steroid hormones

A

Cholesterol

187
Q

Made up of ONE sugar molecule

A

Monosaccharides

188
Q

MAde up of TWO sugar molecules

A

Disaccharides

189
Q

Made up of TWO sugar molecules

A

Disaccharides

190
Q

What is made up of MORE than 2 sugar molecules

A

Polysaccharides

191
Q

There are many __________ in plants

A

Fibers

192
Q

what are linked by peptide bonds and formed during the dehydration synthesis reaction

A

Amino acids

193
Q

Linear sequence of amino acids

A

Primary structure

194
Q

Secondary structure has two types they are the __________ and _______

A

Alpha helix, beta sheets

195
Q

Spiral coil

A

Alpha helix

196
Q

Planar pleat arrangement

A

Beta sheet

197
Q

What two categories are distinguished in he tertiary structure

A

globular proteins ( compact shape), Fibrous proteins (extended linear molecules)

198
Q

______________ present in proteins with two or more polypeptide chains

A

Quaternary structure

199
Q

The quaternary structure has a ____________ and _____________

A

Globular protein, 3 fibrous proteins

200
Q

_________________ is conformational change to a protein

A

Denaturation

201
Q

Denaturation is usually ___________

A

irreversible

202
Q

_______________ destroys quarternary, tertiary and secondary structures and all we are left with is the primary structure

A

Denaturation

203
Q

Denaturation is caused by __________ or ________ changes

A

Temperature, pH

204
Q

_________is a component of animal plasma membranes as well as the precursor used to synthesize other steroids.

A

Cholesterol

205
Q

Cholesterol is synthesized in the _____from fatty acids and may be obtained from eating animal products such as meat, eggs, and milk.

A

liver

206
Q

_____is a major nutritional source of glucose for humans. It is found in potatoes, grains, and many other plant foods.

A

plant starch

207
Q

_____________ is functional only when all four polypeptide chains are present in the correct association.

A

Hemoglobin

Biology 2250 Anatomy and Physiology chapters 1 (2 decks)

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