Chapter 2 Flashcards
Major and Minor Elements of the human body
Minor elements:
sulfur, potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, and iron. (Less than 1%) body weight
Major elements:
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus (Almost 99%) body weight
Are these elements major or minor? sulfur, potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, and iron.
Minor elements
Are these elements major or minor? oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus
Major elements
List in order the nutrient composition of the human body from most to least
- Water (60-65%)
- Fat and protein
- Minerals (1.5%)
- Vitamins and carbohydrates (1%)
What is the reason we store very little carbohydrates?
When you eat carbohydrates, they are broken down into small sugar molecules in your stomach. These molecules are transported through your digestive system and then converted into glucose by the liver to make a usable form of energy for the brain and your muscles. Carbohydrates are stored in the body in the form of glucose or glycogen.
Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred energy source. The carbohydrates you eat provide energy to your muscles, brain and nervous system; facilitate the metabolism of fat; and ensure that the protein in your muscles is not broken down to supply energy. Because carbohydrates are so important to your bodily functions, any excess carbs you eat are stored in your liver, muscles and fat for future use.
Analysis of an item shows the following: Total weight :200 grams, weight of vitamins 3 grams, weight of water 116 grams, weight of minerals 3 grams, weight of fat 40 grams, weight of carbohydrates 3 grams, weight of protein 35 grams… Is this an animal or plant? Explain the reason for your answer.
This would be an animal because of the fewer carbohydrates as a percentage in our body.
What are the functions of water?
- Metabolism (involved in some chemical reaction)-Protein and carbohydrates are two nutrients necessary for healthy body functioning. They provide energy and are vital for growth and development. However, these two substances are useless to the body without water. Water enables a chemical reaction to occur which results in protein and carbohydrates becoming absorbable and usable by the body.
- Transports-Water is essential in the body’s transportation system. Nutrients and other necessary elements must be sent to all parts of the body in order to ensure functioning of every single body process, from respiration to muscle movement to digestion and waste removal. Without water as the movement medium, the body would not function.
- Lubricates- primary function of water is to serve as a lubricant. For example, it is found in saliva and is a substantial component in the fluid surrounding joints. Water is also in and surrounding body structures such as the brain, spinal cord and eyes. The water layer helps protect and cushion these vulnerable areas from shock and trauma that could otherwise cause significant damage.
- Cushions- Works like a lubricant
- Temperature Regulation-Water is an important agent in body temperature regulation. The human body cannot function unless this is maintained within a certain range. Water helps achieve this in two ways. Since water is slow to change temperature and is efficient at storing heat, the amount of water in the body composition, 60 to 75 percent, is a natural temperature regulator. Another way this nutrient is used by the body for this purpose is through the process of perspiration. As water evaporates from the skin, the body is cooled.
- Excretes Wastes- It helps excrete waste through perspiration, urination, and defecation. Your body uses water to sweat, urinate, and have bowel movements. … Your kidneys are also important for filtering out waste through urination
What are the functions of water?
- Metabolism (involved in some chemical reaction)-Protein and carbohydrates are two nutrients necessary for healthy body functioning. They provide energy and are vital for growth and development. However, these two substances are useless to the body without water. Water enables a chemical reaction to occur which results in protein and carbohydrates becoming absorbable and usable by the body.
- Transports-Transports. Substances are dissolved in water and moved throughout the body in water-based fluids (e.g., blood
- Lubricates- Lubricates. Water-based fluids located between body structures decrease friction (e.g., serous fluid between the heart and its sac and synovial fluid within joints
- Cushions- The force of sudden body movements is absorbed by water-based fluids (e.g., cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord)
- Temperature Regulation-Water is an important agent in body temperature regulation. The human body cannot function unless this is maintained within a certain range. Water helps achieve this in two ways. Since water is slow to change temperature and is efficient at storing heat, the amount of water in the body composition, 60 to 75 percent, is a natural temperature regulator. Another way this nutrient is used by the body for this purpose is through the process of perspiration. As water evaporates from the skin, the body is cooled.
- Excretes Wastes- It helps excrete waste through perspiration, urination, and defecation. Your body uses water to sweat, urinate, and have bowel movements. … Your kidneys are also important for filtering out waste through urination
In which reaction is water the product
Dehydration Synthesis
In which reaction is a substrate broken down
Hydrolysis
In which reaction are substrates combined
Dehyrdration Synthesis
What is the relationship between pH and Hydrogen
The overall concentration of hydrogen ions is inversely related to its pH and can be measured on the pH scale.
Therefore, the more hydrogen ions present, the ______ the pH; conversely, the fewer hydrogen ions, the ______ the pH.
- Lower
- Higher
What is the normal pH range
7.35-7.45
What is the pH of pure water
7
What are the units of pH
0-14 (NO UNITS)
A solution that has a pH of less than 7
Acidic
A solution that has a pH of 7
Neutral
A solution that has a pH of more than 7
Basic
Solutions with equal concentration of H and OH-
Have a pH of 7
Soutions with GREATER H+ than OH-
Are acidic and have a pH of less than 7
Solutions with GREATER “H”+ than OH-
Are acidic and have a pH of less than 7
Solutions with GREATER “OH-“ than H+
Are basic and have a pH of more than 7
What does OH- stand for
Hydroxide Ions
Solutions with a LOWER H+ than OH- concentration
Basic and have a pH of more than 7
What provides a measure of free hydrogens (H+) in a solution
An acid is a substance that dissociates in water to produce both an H+ and an anion. An acid increases the concentration of H+ (written as [H+]) that is free in solution
A base decreases the concentration of H+ free in solution.
What happens to the H+ as a solution gets more basic
Less hydrogen ions
Which has more hydrogen ions (acid or base)
Acid
Which can release H+ (acid or base)
Acid
Which can donate H+ (acid or base)
Acid
What can accept H+ (acid or base)
Base
What are ways the body maintains pH
Buffer (quickest), Respiratory System, Urinary system(Slowest)
The combination of an acid and its corresponding base
Neutralization occurs when a solution that is either acidic or basic becomes neutral (i.e., has a pH of 7). The neutralization of an acidic solution is accomplished by adding a base, whereas a basic solution is neutralized by adding an acid
What is an example of the buffer system
Note: Buffers can Accept hyrdogens AND release hydrogens
A buffer is either a single type of molecule or two or more different types of molecules that helps prevent pH changes if either acid or base is added.
A buffer acts either to accept H+ from added acid or to donate H+ to neutralize added base.
Both bicarbonate (HCO3−)and carbonic acid (H2CO3), for example, are present within the blood and serve as buffers.
Bicarbonate (HCO3−) accepts H+ as acid is added to the blood and carbonic acid (H2CO3) releases H+ as base is added to the blood to maintain the pH of the blood within the normal range of 7.35 to 7.45
Explain how the bicarbonate buffer system would maintain pH of the blood when an acid is added
Both bicarbonate (HCO3−)and carbonic acid (H2CO3), for example, are present within the blood and serve as buffers.
Bicarbonate (HCO3−) accepts H+ as acid is added to the blood and carbonic acid (H2CO3) releases H+ as base is added to the blood to maintain the pH of the blood within the normal range of 7.35 to 7.45
Explain how the bicarbonate buffer system would maintain pH of the blood when an acid is added
Both bicarbonate (HCO3−)and carbonic acid (H2CO3), for example, are present within the blood and serve as buffers.
Bicarbonate (HCO3−) accepts H+ as acid is added to the blood and carbonic acid (H2CO3) releases H+ as base is added to the blood to maintain the pH of the blood within the normal range of 7.35 to 7.45
Explain how the bicarbonate buffer system would maintain pH of the blood when a base is added
carbonic acid (H2CO3) releases H+ as base is added to the blood to maintain the pH of the blood within the normal range of 7.35 to 7.45
Explain how the bicarbonate buffer system would maintain pH of the blood when an ACID is added
Both bicarbonate (HCO3−)and carbonic acid (H2CO3), for example, are present within the blood and serve as buffers.
Bicarbonate (HCO3−) accepts H+ as acid is added to the blood and carbonic acid (H2CO3) releases H+ as base is added to the blood to maintain the pH of the blood within the normal range of 7.35 to 7.45
Explain how the bicarbonate buffer system would maintain pH of the blood when a BASE is added
carbonic acid (H2CO3) releases H+ as base is added to the blood to maintain the pH of the blood within the normal range of 7.35 to 7.45
How does the respiratory system respond to increased carbon dioxide in the blood
CO2 is indirectly acidic
The more carbon dioxide in the blood the more hydrogen ions we have and that results in a lower pH
Increase respiration decrases blood CO2
What decreased blood CO2
Increase Respiration
How does the respiratory system respond to increased carbon dioxide in the blood
CO2 is indirectly acidic
The more carbon dioxide in the blood the more hydrogen ions we have and that results in a lower pH
Increase respiration decreases blood CO2
How does the respiratory system respond to increased hydrogen in the blood
Increased Respirtation
How does the respiratory system respond to increased hydrogen in the blood
Increased Respiration
How does the respiratory system respond to increased pH of the blood
Increase in Respiration
What is the relationship between pH and carbon dioxide
Carbonic acid, Bicabonate ion, and hydrogen ion
An increase in Hydrogen= decrease in pH
A Decrease in Hydrogen = increase in pH
H2C03( Carbonic), HCO3 (Bicarbonate), H+ (Hydrogen)
What is the relationship between the bicarbonate buffer system and carbon dioxide?
Carbonic acid, Bicabonate ion, and hydrogen ion
An increase in Hydrogen= decrease in pH
A Decrease in Hydrogen = increase in pH
H2C03( Carbonic), HCO3 (Bicarbonate), H+ (Hydrogen)
What is the relationship between H+ and carbon dioxide
The more carbon dioxide= more hydrogen ions= a lower pH level
In what ways can the kidney help maintain blood pH\ explain each.
Excretion of H+
Productionn\Excretion of urinary benefits
Reabsorption of bicarbonate
Note: Kidneys decide what to keep and sends the blood and also kidneys decide what not to keep and sends to the urine to be excreted
In what ways can the kidney help maintain blood pH\ explain each.
Excretion of H+
Production\Excretion of urinary benefits
Reabsorption of bicarbonate (go back into blood)
Note: Kidneys decide what to keep and sends the blood and also kidneys decide what not to keep and sends to the urine to be excreted
Explaining each one down below:
Excretion of Hydrogen- Decrease blood pH happens when we have increase in hydrogen ions.
urine pH
4.5-8
In what ways can the kidney help maintain blood pH\ explain each.
Excretion of H+
Production\Excretion of urinary benefits
Reabsorption of bicarbonate (go back into blood)
Note: Kidneys decide what to keep and sends the blood and also kidneys decide what not to keep and sends to the urine to be excreted
Explaining each one down below:
- Excretion of Hydrogen- Decrease blood pH happens when we have increase in hydrogen ions.
- Production and Excretion of urinary benefits- Decrease blood pH when we have an increase in hydrogen ions . This is what we need to do: (increase excretion of urinary buffers. Example: Ammonium + Hydrogen = Ammonium Ion (NH3 +H+ = NH4)
- Reabsorption of bicarbonate: Note: when we have a lot of hyrogens we need bicarbonate. Decrease in blood pH when we have an increase in hydrogens ions. (this is what we need to do: Increase reabsorption of bicarbonate)
If the pH goes down what happens to the bicarbonate.
We need to lower the hydrogen ions to increase pH and bring to normal
The following is a buffer system in the blood: HP03- + H+. How would this reaction proceed after each of the following situations? what direction would it primarily go to?
A. Large amounts of hydrogen were added to the blood
B. Large amounts of a base were added to the blood
C. Something suddenly caused pH to increase
D. Something suddenly caused the pH to decrease
E.An increase in blood carbon dioxide
F.A decrease in blood carbon dioxide
G. Excercise
Answers:
A. B. C. D. E. F. G.
What would happen to each of the following if blood pH decreased?
A. Oxygen available to muscle cells
B.Blood hydrogen ion concentration
C. Blood Bicarbonate ion concentration
D.Increase urine Ammonium ion concentration
Answers:
A.
B.
C.
D
How would each of the following alter blood pH:
A. An increase in blood carbon dioxide
B. Increase in urine hydrogen ion concentration
C.Decrease blood bicarbonate ion concentration
D.Increase urine ammonium ion concentration
Answers: A. B. C. D.
Solvent of the body
Water
Solvent + solute
Solution
What is used to dissolve substances
Solutes
Substances that are dissolved
Hydrophilic
Substances that are dissolved
Solutes
term for item attached to water
hydrophilic
term for item that is repelled from water
hydrophobic
How must items in the blood that do not associate with water be handle
Hydrophobic substances are “water fearing” and require carrier proteins to be transported within the blood.
What are items that do not dissolve in water
fats, cholesterol
The amount of solute in a solution
Concentration
What are 3 ways to express concentration. Explain each.
Mass\Volume: mass of solute per volume of solution. Example: 90 mg glucose per deciliter blood (mg\dl)
Molarity: Moles\Liter solution
Molality: Moles\kilogram solvent
Osmoles: Unit of measurement for number of particles in a solution.
Example: Milliosmoles: = (mOsm) - 1000 mOsm = 1 Osm
Represents number of dissolved substances (influences osmosis)
Osmolarity: number of particles in a 1 liter solution
Osmolality: *number of particles in 1 kg of water
*Blood serum expressed as Osmolality
What are 2 examples of concentrations of substances in mass\voulme in the blood\explain each.
Normal blood concentration of iron is within the range of 40 to 150 μg/dL.
Normal blood concentration of glucose is between 70 and 110 mg/dL.
Mass/volume is mass of solute per volume of solution. Results from a blood test are often expressed in mass/volume. Mass/volume percent is grams of solute per 100 milliliters of solution. For example, mass/volume percent is the unit of measurement for intravenous (IV) solutions.
What is one example of molarity and molality
Molarity: Moles of solute per liter of solution
Example:0.164 mol/L solution
Molality: Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
Example: 0.164 mol/kg solvent
What is one example of molarity and molality
Molarity: Moles of solute per liter of solution
Example:0.164 mol/L solution
A molar solution of glucose is made by placing 180.10 grams (its molecular mass) of glucose into a container and adding enough water until it measures 1 liter.
Molality: Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
Example: 0.164 mol/kg solvent
is the moles per kilogram of solvent. A solution of one molality is made by placing 180.10 grams of glucose into a container and adding 1 kilogram of water. Molarity and molality may be used interchangeably, subject to this caveat: The two values are the closest when the measurements are taken at 4°C. At this temperature, 1 liter of water is at its most dense, and its mass is exactly equal to 1 kilogram of water.
Unit of measure expressing the number of particles in a solution
Osmolarity
Unit of measure expressing the number of particles in a solution
Osmoles
What is osmoles used for
a unit of osmotic pressure equivalent to the amount of solute that dissociates in solution to form one mole
a unit of osmotic pressure equivalent to the amount of solute that dissociates in solution to form one mole
Osmoles
What is osmoles used for
a unit of osmotic pressure equivalent to the amount of solute that dissociates in solution to form one mole
Another means of expressing concentration is with osmoles (osm), which reflect whether a substance either dissolves, or dissolves and dissociates, when placed into a solution (i.e., whether it is a nonelectrolyte or an electrolyte). It is the unit of measurement for the number of particles in solution. The term osmole generally is used to reflect the extent a solution is able to alter water movement through osmosis.
What are 2 examples of this unit of measure
Osmolarity and Osmolality
What are the organic molecules
Molecules that contain carbon
__________ is the number of particles in a 1-liter solution, whereas _________ is the number of particles in 1 kilogram of water.
Osmolarity, Osmolality
molarity and molality are based on the number of particles in units called a ____________
mole
Biological macromolecules are large organic molecules that are synthesized by the human body. These molecules always contain the elements ______ _______, and ________
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
What are the organic molecules
Molecules that contain carbon
- Lipids
- Carbohydrates
- Nucleic acids
- Proteins
Biological macromolecules are large organic molecules that are synthesized by the human body. These molecules always contain the elements ______ _______, and ________
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
*Some biological macromolecules may also have one or more of the following: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), or sulfur (S)
What is the difference between organic molecules and inorganic molecules
Organic molecules are based on carbons, and inorganic molecules are based on other elements.
There are some molecules which are considered as inorganic molecules although they contain carbon atoms
Organic molecules are mostly found in living organisms where inorganic molecules are mostly abundant in non living systems.
What are the inorganic nutrients
An inorganic nutrient is essentially any compound or element that is not carbon -based, but is otherwise necessary to maintain health and optimum growth of a plant, animal, or human.
“As far as human nutrition is concerned, the inorganic nutrients include water, sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphate, sulfate, magnesium, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, iodine, selenium, and molybdenum. Other inorganic nutrients include phosphate, sulfate, and selenium. Inorganic nutrients have a great variety of functions in the body.”
What is the difference between organic molecules and inorganic molecules
Chemists classify molecules into two broad categories—organic molecules and inorganic molecules.
Organic molecules are defined as molecules that contain carbon, which are (or have been) components of living organisms (e.g., glucose, protein, triglycerides)
All other types of molecules are inorganic molecules. Examples of inorganic molecules include water, salts (e.g., sodium chloride), acids (e.g., hydrochloric acid), and bases (e.g., sodium hydroxide).
Water is present in three phases, depending upon the temperature
a gas (water vapor), a liquid (water), and a solid (ice).
what are the water insoluble organic molecules
Lipids
Group of biological macromolecules including triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and ecosanoids.
Lipids are a very diverse group of fatty, water-insoluble (hydrophobic) molecules that function as stored energy, components of cellular membranes, and hormones. Triglycerides (neutral fats), phospholipids, steroids, and eicosanoids are the four primary classes of lipids.
What are the elements that make up lipids
All lipids contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Some of them also contain nitrogen and phosphorus.
Triglycerides (neutral fats), phospholipids, steroids, and eicosanoids are the four primary classes of lipids.
What are the elements that make a carbohydrate and Lipids
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
What elements make up a protein
carbon, hydrogen,oxygen, AND nitrogen
What are some examples of lipids
Triglycerides (neutral fats), phospholipids, steroids, and eicosanoids are the four primary classes of lipids
What is the most common lipid in the body
Triglycerides are the most common form of lipids in living things.
What are the components of triglycerides and how are these components joined
A glycerol and three fatty acid molecules.
The middle fatty acid is a saturated fatty acid, whereas the other two are unsaturated fatty acids.
The fatty acid is saturated if it lacks double bonds—that is, every carbon has the maximum number of hydrogen atoms bound to it.
An unsaturated fatty acid has one double bond, and a polyunsaturated fatty acid has two or more double bonds.
What are the components of triglycerides and how are these components joined
A glycerol and three fatty acid molecules.
The middle fatty acid is a saturated fatty acid, whereas the other two are unsaturated fatty acids.
The fatty acid is saturated if it lacks double bonds—that is, every carbon has the maximum number of hydrogen atoms bound to it.
An unsaturated fatty acid has one double bond, and a polyunsaturated fatty acid has two or more double bonds.
When conditions of excess nutrients exist, adipose connective tissue binds fatty acids to glycerol to form triglycerides in a dehydration synthesis process called lipogenesis (fat production).
Adipose connective tissue breaks down triglycerides and releases the products into the blood when nutrients are needed. This process is a hydrolysis reaction called lipolysis
What are some examples of lipids
Triglycerides (neutral fats), phospholipids, steroids, and eicosanoids , ketones, are the four primary classes of lipids
What are the functions of triglycerides
For energy, structural support, cushioning, insulation, and fat soluble vitamin absorption
Components of fatty acids
Chains of c, with H and O
Fatty acids may vary in length—commonly ranging in even numbers from 14 to 20 carbons—and may differ in the number and position of double bonds between the carbons in the chain.
The fatty acid is saturated if it LACKS double bonds—that is, every carbon has the maximum number of hydrogen atoms bound to it.
An unsaturated fatty acid has one double bond, and a polyunsaturated fatty acid has two or more double bonds.
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
The fatty acid is saturated if it lacks DOUBLE bonds—that is, every carbon has the maximum number of hydrogen atoms bound to it.
An unsaturated fatty acid has ONE double bond
What are some types of unsaturated fatty acids
Monounsaturated: 1 double bond
Polyunsaturated: two or more double bonds
What are the components of glycerol and how are these components joined
3 C with H and O
Glycerol is a three-carbon molecule with a hydroxyl functional group attached to each carbon.
What lipid is the main component of cell membranes
Phospholipid
What are the components of a phospholipid
Glycerol, 2 fatty acids, one phosphate
Phospholipids were previously described as amphipathic molecules that form chemical barriers of cell membranes, including plasma membranes that form the outer barrier of a cell.
The chemical structure of a phospholipid is similar to a triglyceride, except that one end of the glycerol has a polar phosphate group with various organic groups (choline, ethanolamine, or the amino acid serine) attached to it instead of a fatty acid.
The glycerol, phosphate, and organic groups are polar and form the water-soluble hydrophilic part of the molecule referred to as the hydrophilic (polar) head.
The two fatty acid molecules attached to the glycerol form a water-insoluble hydrophobic end called the hydrophobic (nonpolar) tails.
Glycerol, 2 fatty acids, one phosphate
These are components of a ____________
Phospholipid
Describe the structure of steroids
Steroids are composed predominantly of hydrocarbons arranged in a distinct multi ringed structure. A steroid has four attached carbon rings; three rings have six carbon atoms and one ring has five carbon atoms.
Steroids differ in the side chains extending from their rings. Steroids include cholesterol, steroid hormones (e.g., testosterone, estrogen), and bile salts.
Cholesterol is a component of animal plasma membranes as well as the precursor used to synthesize other steroids. Cholesterol is synthesized in the liver from fatty acids and may be obtained from eating animal products such as meat, eggs, and milk.
What is the relationship between cholesterol and the rest of the steroids
Cholesterol is a component of animal plasma membranes as well as the precursor used to synthesize other steroids. Cholesterol is synthesized in the liver from fatty acids and may be obtained from eating animal products such as meat, eggs, and milk.
Ketones are made from this organic molecule
Triglycerides
Explain the difference between Monosaccarides, disaccarides, and poly - saccarides
The number of carbon atoms typically ranges from three to seven. The least complex carbohydrates are simple sugar monomers called monosaccharides.
All monosaccharides have between three and seven carbon atoms.
Carbohydrates that are dimers formed from two monosaccharides are disaccharides,
and those with many monosaccharides are polysaccharides.
Examples of Monosaccarides, disaccarides, and poly - saccarides
Monosaccarides: One sugar molecule
Dusaccharide: Formed from two monosaccarides
Polysaccarides: Formed from many monosaccarides
Monosaccarides: glucose, galactose, fructose
Disaccharides: *Sucrose= glucose+ fructose
* Lactose = glucose + galactose
* Maltose = glucose + glucose
Polysaccarrides: *Glycogen = animal storage form of carbs (1000) of glucoses
- Starch=plant storage form of carbs ( 1000s of glucoses)
- Fibers= many fibers, in plants
Most common monosaccaride in body
Glucose is a six-carbon (hexose) carbohydrate that is the most common monosaccharide
polysaccarides in plants
polysaccharides in plants include starch and cellulose, which are also composed of repeating glucose monomers.
Plant starch is a major nutritional source of glucose for humans. It is found in potatoes, grains, and many other plant foods.
What is the storage form of carbohydrates in animals
Glycogen
What is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants
Starch
Which stores more carbohydrates: animals or plants
Plants
Which typically store more triglycerides: animals or palnts?
Animals
What are the functions of proteins
- Enzymes
- Immune Defense
- Transport
- Structural Support
- Movement
- Regulation
- Storage
What is the basic components of proteins
One or more strands of amino acids
- amine group
- carboxylic acid group
- Functional group (R) unique
Amino acids linked by peptide bonds
Formed during dehydration synthesis reaction
- Dipeptide: 2 amino acids
- Tripeptide: 3 amino acids
- Polypeptide: Many amino acids smaller than proteins
- Protein: More than 200 amino acids usually in the 1000s
What are the functions of proteins
- Enzymes
- Immune Defense
- Transport
- Structural Support
- Movement
- Regulation
- Storage
Serve as catalysts (enzymes) in most metabolic reactions of the body
Act in defense, which occurs, for example, when immunoglobulins (antibodies) attach to foreign substances for their elimination
Aid in transport, as when hemoglobin molecules transport respiratory gases within the blood
Contribute to structural support, such as collagen, a major component of ligaments and tendons
Cause movement, when myosin and actin proteins interact during contraction of muscle tissue
Perform regulation, as occurs when insulin helps control blood glucose levels
Provide storage, such as ferritin, which stores iron in liver cell
Components of amino acids
- amino group,
- hydrogen,
- R group,
- carboxyl group.
What are four major classes of biological macromolecules that compose the human body.
Lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins
What type of bond holds amino acids together
Peptide bonds
they are formed during dehydration synthesis reaction
Structural level of proteins from least to most complex explain each
The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids in the protein.
The secondary structures of a protein may include alpha helixes and beta sheets.
The tertiary structure is the completed 3-dimensional shape or conformation of the protein, which may be a globular or fibrous protein.
A quaternary structure is formed in some complex proteins when two or more protein molecules associate to form the final protein
Example of protein with the quaternery level
The quaternary structure of a protein is present only in those proteins with two or more protein strands. The protein hemoglobin is an example because it is composed of four protein chains. Each of these chains has its own primary, secondary, and tertiary structures. Only when the four separate strands associate through intermolecular attractions to form the quaternary structure does the biological molecule of hemoglobin become active. Therefore, hemoglobin is functional only when all four polypeptide chains are present in the correct association.
Number of different amino acids
20
Exposure of a protein to boiling temperatures will cause this
Denaturation
What levels of protein structure will remain after boiling
Primary Structure
Testosterone
Steroid
Cortisol
Steroid
Carbonic acid- Bicorbonate ion + Hydrogen ion =
H2CO3- (carbonic acid)- HC03 (Bicarbonate ion) + H+ (Hydrogen ion)
To right: Increases H+, decreases pH
To left: Decreases H+, increases pH
NaHCO3
Baking soda
What is indirectly acidic
CO2
The more carbon dioxide in the body the ____________ pH
lower
The more carbon dioxide = the more ___________ and equals a ________ pH level
hydrogen, lower
What happens when we have a decrease in blood CO@?
we will have an increase in respirations
When we lose carbohydrates we also lose _______
water
We have to have _________ to function
Carbohydrates
We don’t store carbohydrates other than ___%, we store then as _________
1, fat
What occurs during the SYNTHESIS of biomolecules
Dehydration Synthesis
Smaller to larger is what chemical reaction
Dehydration synthesis
When water is the PRODUCT
Dehydration synthesis
Occurs during the BREAKDOWN of biomolecules
Hydrolysis
Larger to smaller what chemical reaction is this
Hydrolysis
When water is the substrate
Hydrolysis
The pH is a measure of _________
Hydrogen
Amount of hydrogen in a solution
0-14 (no units)
-log H+ concentration
When we have an increase in hydrogen ions what happens to our pH?
Our pH goes down
-log [H+] is what formula
pH
[H+] units Molar (M.moles per liter)
{H+]=10-pH M
What is the amount dissolved in a solution
The concentration
__________ releases H+ because of a ______ concentration of H+
Acid, Higher
The most acidic is?
Hydrochloric acid
The most basic (Alkaline)
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH
How acidic is urine on a pH scale
6
what is urine on a pH scale
6
What is human blood on a pH scale
7.4
when H+ is greater than OH-, we are _________ H+ and __________ pH
Increasing, decreasing
What is the importance of pH
- Enzyme function- a change in pH denatures enzymes
- Mineral balance- Some minerals move with hydrogen
- Oxygen-Hemoglobin binding (Decrease pH, decrease affirnity of oxygen for hemoglobin.
A change in pH _____________ enzymes
Denatures
if our pH goes now the _________ goes down, so therefore, ___________ and ____________ detach from each other
affirnity, hemoglobin, oxygen
What help prevent pH changes if excess acid or base is added
Buffer
__________ can pick up hydrogen or release hydrogen
Buffers
When we have a decreased blood pH we have to have an __________in hydrogen ions and increase excretion of urinary buffers
increase
solvent + solute =
A solution
water loving (dissolve in water)
Hydrophilic
Water fearing (Do not dissolve in water)
Hydrophobic
_______________ substances require carrier proteins to be transported within the blood
Hydrophobic Substances
What 2 things are unable to dissolve in water
fats, cholesterol
Molecules that contain carbon
Organic
What are biological macromolecules
- Lipids
- Carbohydrates
- Nucleic acids
- Proteins
All other molecules
Inorganic molecules
Fatty, water insoluble
Lipids
Examples of lipids:
Triglycerides
Phospholipids
Steroids (cholesterol, steroid hormones)
Ketones
What is determined by the amount of solute in a solution
Concentration
90 mg glucose per deciliter blood (mg\dl) is an example of what
mass\volume
Blood serum is expressed as _____________
Osmolality
Most common form of lipid in the body
Triglyceride
What is used for energy, structural support, cushioning , insulation and fat soluble vitamin absorbption
Triglycerides
-3C with H and O
Glycerol
Glycerol is a ___________
Fatty acid
______________ occurs through dehydration
Lipogensis
_____________ occurs through hydrolysis
lypolysis
What forms cell membranes
Phospholipids
What is a structure similar to triglyceride and consist of a glycerol, 2 fatty acids, one phosphate group
phospholipid
a phospholipid is made up of __________, _____________ and _________
Glycerol, 2 fatty acids, 1 phosphate
what is made from triglycerides and is used as a glucose backup for nerve function (including brain)
Ketones
Ketones are made up of ____________, _______________, and _____________
Acetic acid, acetoacedic acid, hydroxybutyric acid
________ are arranged in a multi ringed structure
Steroids
Steroids include ____________, ________ hormones, ________, ________ and _________
Cholesterol, steroid, testosterone, estrogen, cortisol
What is a component of cell membranes and precursor to steroid hormones
Cholesterol
Made up of ONE sugar molecule
Monosaccharides
MAde up of TWO sugar molecules
Disaccharides
Made up of TWO sugar molecules
Disaccharides
What is made up of MORE than 2 sugar molecules
Polysaccharides
There are many __________ in plants
Fibers
what are linked by peptide bonds and formed during the dehydration synthesis reaction
Amino acids
Linear sequence of amino acids
Primary structure
Secondary structure has two types they are the __________ and _______
Alpha helix, beta sheets
Spiral coil
Alpha helix
Planar pleat arrangement
Beta sheet
What two categories are distinguished in he tertiary structure
globular proteins ( compact shape), Fibrous proteins (extended linear molecules)
______________ present in proteins with two or more polypeptide chains
Quaternary structure
The quaternary structure has a ____________ and _____________
Globular protein, 3 fibrous proteins
_________________ is conformational change to a protein
Denaturation
Denaturation is usually ___________
irreversible
_______________ destroys quarternary, tertiary and secondary structures and all we are left with is the primary structure
Denaturation
Denaturation is caused by __________ or ________ changes
Temperature, pH
_________is a component of animal plasma membranes as well as the precursor used to synthesize other steroids.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is synthesized in the _____from fatty acids and may be obtained from eating animal products such as meat, eggs, and milk.
liver
_____is a major nutritional source of glucose for humans. It is found in potatoes, grains, and many other plant foods.
plant starch
_____________ is functional only when all four polypeptide chains are present in the correct association.
Hemoglobin
