Chapter 2 Flashcards
developmental theory
- a group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth
- provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development
norm
-an average/typical standard of behavior or accomplishment, such as the norm for age of walking or the norm for greeting a stranger
psychoanalytic theory
- a grand theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior
- main theorists: Freud and Erikson
behaviorism
- a grand theory of human development that studies observable behavior
- also called learning theory because it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned
- studied by John Watson
conditioning
-in regards to behaviorism:
—the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place
—word is used to emphasize the importance of repeated practice, as when an athlete conditions his or her body to perform well by training for a long time
classical conditioning
- the learning process in which a meaningful stimulus (such as smell of food to hungry animal) is connected with a neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a tone) that had no special meaning before conditioning
- Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov
operant conditioning
- the learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (which makes the person/animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted(makes the action less likely to be repeated)
- BF Skinner
reinforcement
-when behavior is followed by something desired, such as food for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile for a lonely person
social learning theory
- an extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person’s behavior
- even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people
modeling
-the central process of social learning, by which a person observes the actions of others and then copies them
self efficacy
-in social learning theory, the belief of some people that they are able to change themselves and effectively alter the social context
cognitive theory
- a grand theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time
- according to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors
- first major theorist: Jean Piaget
cognitive equilibrium
-a state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experiences and ideas
assimilation
-the reinterpreation of new experiences to fit into old ideas
accomodation
-the restructuring of old ideas to include new experiences
information-processing theory
-a perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output
sociocultural theory
- a newer theory that holds that development results from the dynamic interaction of each person with the surrounding social and cultural differences
- founded by Lev Vgotsky
apprenticeship in thinking
-Vgotsky’s term for how cognition is stimulated and developed in people by more skilled members of society
guided participation
-the process by which people learn from other who guide their experiences and explorations
zone of proximal development
-a metaphorical area surrounding a learner that includes all the skills, knowledge, and concepts that the person is close to acquiring but cannot yet master without help
humanism
- a theory that stresses the potential of all humans for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender or background
- Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
selective adaptation
- the process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to their environment
- genes that enhance survival and reproductive ability are selected, over the generations, to become more prevalent
eclectic perspective
-the approach taken by most developmentalists, in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory
