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Chapter 2 - Flashcards

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1
Q

Hindsight bias

A

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (I knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

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2
Q

Critical thinking

A

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumption, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidences, and assesses conclusions.

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3
Q

Theory

A

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations.

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4
Q

Hypothesis

A

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

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5
Q

Experiment

A

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one of more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experiment controls other relevant factors.

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6
Q

Applied research

A

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

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7
Q

Basic research

A

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

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8
Q

Independent Variable

A

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

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9
Q

Dependent Variable

A

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

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10
Q

Operational definition

A

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

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11
Q

Replication

A

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

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12
Q

Experimental Group

A

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

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13
Q

Sampling Bias

A

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

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14
Q

Control Group

A

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

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15
Q

Validity

A

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or preside it’s what it is supposed to.

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16
Q

Reliability

A

The extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting.

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17
Q

Sample

A

Items (often people) selected at random from a population and used to test hypotheses about the population.

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18
Q

Population

A

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

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19
Q

Representative sample

A

A subset of the opposition carefully chosen to represent the proportionate diversity of the population as a whole.

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20
Q

Random Sample

A

Sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

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21
Q

Stratified Sample

A

Subgroups in the population are represented proportionally to the sample; a process that allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on some criteria.

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22
Q

Laboratory Experiment

A

A study that takes place under controlled conditions where the researcher deliberately manipulates the independent variable to see its effect on a dependent variable.

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23
Q

Field Experiment

A

Experiments conducted out in the world.

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24
Q

Confounding Variable

A

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

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25
Q

Random Assignment

A

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

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26
Q

Control

A

Factors in an experiment that are unchanged for both the control group and the experimental group.

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27
Q

Group-matching

A

Researchers attempt to categorize the subjects (by age, health, status, gender, etc.) and ensure that the control group has members similar to those in the experimental group.

28
Q

Experimenter Bias

A

Special kind of situation-relevant confounding variable; the unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis.

29
Q

Double-blind procedure

A

An experimental procedure in which both the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo.

30
Q

Single-blind procedure

A

As a way to avoid the placebo effect in research, this type of study is designed without the subject’s knowledge of the anticipated results and sometimes even the nature of the study. The subjects are said to be ‘blind’ to the expected results.

32
Q

Participant bias

A

A tendency for research participants to behave in a certain way because they know they are being observed or they believe they know what the researcher wants.

33
Q

Social desirability

A

The tendency to try to give answers that reflect well upon oneself; one kind of response bias.

34
Q

Hawthorne effect

A

The tendency or some people to work harder and perform better when they are participants in an experiment. Individuals may change their behavior due to the attention they are receiving from researchers rather than because of any manipulation of independent variables.

35
Q

Placebo effect

A

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect in behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance of condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.

36
Q

Positive Correlation

A

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decrease so does the other. Both variable move in the same direction.

37
Q

Negative Correlation

A

A correlation where as one two variables tend to move in the opposite directions (example: the number of pages printed and the amount of ink left in your printer are negatively correlated. The more pages printed, the less ink you have left.)

38
Q

Survey

A

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.

39
Q

Response rate

A

The extent to which people participate in a survey.

40
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

41
Q

Case study

A

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

42
Q

Descriptive Statistics

A

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

43
Q

Frequency Distribution

A

Can easily be tuned into frequency polygons (line graphs) or histograms (bar graphs); y-axis always represents frequency while whatever is being graphed is graphed along the X-axis.

44
Q

Mean

A

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and them diving by the number of scores.

45
Q

Median

A

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below.

46
Q

Mode

A

The most friendly occurring score in a distribution.

47
Q

Outliers

A

Extreme scores that cause distributions to be unsymmetrical or skewed.

48
Q

Skew

A

A statistical term that measure “asymmetry” (lack of similarity) in a “bell curve” (the bell-shaped graph that occurs when plotting data on normal measures traits).

49
Q

Range

A

Th difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution.

50
Q

Standard deviation

A

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

51
Q

Variance

A

The degree to which a set of values varies from the mean of the set of values.

52
Q

Z Score

A

A number, expressed in standard deviation units, that shows a score’s deviation from the mean.

53
Q

Normal Curve

A

The symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

54
Q

Correlation

A

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

55
Q

Correlation Coefficient

A

A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

56
Q

Scatterplot

A

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.

57
Q

Line of Best Fit

A

Line drawn through the scatter plot that minimizes the distance of all the points from the line. Upward slope=positive correlation. Downward slope=negative.

58
Q

Regression Line

A

The line drawn through the scatter plot that minimizes the distance of all the points from the line; also known as the line of best fit.

59
Q

Inferential Statistics

A

Numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance (e.g. p-value)

60
Q

Sampling Error

A

The extent to which the sample differs from the population.

61
Q

P Value

A

The probability level which forms basis for deciding if results are statistically significant (not due to chance).

62
Q

Statistical Significance

A

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

63
Q

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A

A committee organized by a university or other research institution that approves, monitors, and reviews all research that involves human subjects. Its main purpose is to ensure compliance with ethics standards.

64
Q

Coercion

A

Encouraging or persuading unwilling participants to partake in a form of research; participation should be voluntary.

65
Q

Informed Consent

A

Consent agreement to participate in psychology research after being informed of the dangers and benefits of the research.

66
Q

Anonymity

A

Researchers do not collect any data that enables them to match a person’s response with his or her name.

67
Q

Confidentiality

A

The researcher will not identify the source of any of the data.

68
Q

Debriefing

A

Giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed; required by APA ethics guidelines.

Psychology (2 decks)

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