Chapter 2 Flashcards
Cardiac
Pertains to the heart
Chondro
Pertains to cartilage
-Clavis
Pertains to the clavicle
Costal
Pertains to the ribs
Costarum
Pertains to the ribs
Crico
Pertains to the cricoid cartilage
Dorsi
Pertains to the back
Glottic
Pertains to the glottis, the variable - sized opening between the vocal folds (vf)
Ilio
Pertains to the ilium
Inter
Between
Intra
Within or inside of
Lumbo
Pertains to the lumbar region or the vertebral column
Odontoid
Shaped like a tooth
Osseo
Pertains to bone
Parietal
Pertains to the wall of a cavity
Pectoral
Pertains to the chest
Pelvic
Pertains to the pelvis
Peri
Around or surrounding
Phrenic
Pertains to the diaphragm
Pulmo
Pertains to the lungs
Sacral
Pertains to the sacrum
Serratus
Having a saw tooth or jagged appearance
Spire
Pertaining to the process of breathing
Sterno
Pertaining to the sternum
Sub
Below or inferior to
Tracheal
Pertains to the trachea
Vertebro
Pertains to the vertebral or spinal column
What is breathing
The process of gas exchange between an organism and its environment
Gas exchange is two type of processes
Physical and chemical
What is the physical process in breathing
The process of gas exchange between an organism and its environment
What is chemical process in breathing
The oxidation of food to produce water, carbon dioxide, and heat
What is breathing in terms of speech
The mechanical process
What is the mechanical process
Air is brought into the lungs and forced out again
What is Boyle’s law
If a gas is kept at a constant temperature, pressure and volume are inversely or portions to one another and have a constant product
Kinetic theory of gases
gasses are composed of large numbers of individual molecules that engage in unceasing motion. When the molecules are placed in a vessel, they move about randomly and at high speeds, colliding with one another and with the walls of the vessel.
What are the divisions of the respiratory tract
Upper
Lower
What is a space or cavity of the body
Sinuses ????
Positive pressure
Pressures greater than atmospheric pressure
Negative pressure
Pressures less than atmospheric pressure
What cavity do the lungs lie
Thoracic cavity
How do the lungs communicate with the outside world
Through the Trachea, larynx, pharynx, and the oral and nasal cavities also know as the respiratory tract
What does the respiratory tract consist of
Trachea, larynx, pharynx, and the oral and nasal cavities.
What does the respiratory tract do
Transmits air to the organs of respiration
What are the organs of respiration
Lungs
Pulmonary ventilation
Inhalation and exhalation
External respiration
Gas exchange between the lungs and the blood
Internal respiration
Gas exchange between blood and the cells of the body
A decrease in the volume of the thorax will result in what?
Positive pressure in the lungs
If the respiratory tract is open, the air will rush out until once again the outside and the inside pressures are the same.
What is the respiratory passage
In descending order, the nasal and oral cavities, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi. These structures form a continuous open passage leading from the exterior tot the lungs.
Organs of articulation and resonance
Nasal, oral and pharyngeal cavities
What forms the vocal tract
nasal, oral cavities, the pharynx larynx, trachea, and bronchi.
What does the vocal tract do
Filter, moisten, and warm the air prior to its entering the lower respiratory tract by way of the larynx.
Larynx
Uppermost tracheal cartilages that forms a highly specialized alveolar mechanism that may open or close the air passageway.
serves as a protective device
Thoracic fixation
Valvular action that permits circumstances that demand increased abdominal pressure in order to evacuate visceral contents, such as…..Defecation, emetics, micturation, and heavy lifting
where is the trachea
Extends from the larynx (at the level of the sixth cervical vertebra) to the bronchi below (top of the fifth thoracic vertebra)
What is the trachea composed of
16 to 20 horse shoe shaped rings of hyaline cartilage that is separated by a small space that is occupied by a fibroelastic membrane. The wring is incomplete in the back where the trachea has direct contact with the esophagus. The intervening space between the ends of the tracheal rights is occupied by fibrous tissue and smooth muscle.
What is the trachea connected to
The first tracheal cartilage is slightly larger than the rest and it is connected with the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage of the larynx by means of cricotracheal ligaments.
The last tracheal cartilage bifurcates, giving rise to the main stem bronchi.
Trachea
Fibrous membrane
The fibrous membrane consists of two layers.
One passes over the inner surface and one passes over the outer surface of the cartilaginous rings.
Trachea
What is in the space between the tracheal rings
The two layers of the fibrous membrane blend together to form a single intratracheal membrane which connects the tracheal rings one with another.
Trachea
What is found in the space between the ends of the tracheal rings
Smooth muscle that consists of an outer longitudinal layer and an inner transverse layer.
Trachea
Mucous membrane
Lines the trachea and is continuous with the larynx and the bronchi.
The surface layer is composed of pseudo stratified ciliates columnar epithelium.
Rests on a basement membrane beneath which is sub mucous layer of connective tissue, blood vessels, and mucous glands.
Trachea
Goblet cell
Modified epithelial cell.
Secretory and periodically releases mucus
Lines the trachea in the form of a continuous sheet with mucous produced by mucous glands in the membrane.
Brachial
Pertains to the arm or shoulder
Trachea
Cilia
Continuously in motion, beating about ten times per second, at first quickly downward and then slowly upward, the mucus is lifted as a continuous sheet upward toward the larynx.
Bronchi
Extend from the trachea to the lungs
Bronchi’s 3 groups
Main stem bronchi
Lobar or secondary bronchi
Segmental or tertiary bronchi
Bronchi
Main stem bronchi
Connect the trachea to the lungs at the hilum
Bronchi
Hilum
Point of where the main stem bronchi and the lung meet.
Bronchi are composed of
Imperfect cartilaginous rings that our bound together by fibroelastic tissue.
Invested by smooth muscle fibers and are lined with pseudostratified ciliates columnar epithelium.
Walls contain elastic and glandular tissue.
Right bronchus
Divides into three secondary bronchi, one for each lobe of the right lung.
The secondary bronchi subdivides into ten tertiary bronchi
Left bronchus
Divides into two secondary bronchi
Eight tertiary bronchi
The bronchioles
Final division of the bronchi
Terminal bronchioles
Divisions of the bronchioles.
Communicate directly with the alveolar ducts.
Alveolus
Small pit or depression
Alveoli
Pitted small depressions on the walls of the terminal bronchioles and air sacs.
Alveoli are lined by?
Single layer of epithelial cells resting on a thin basement membrane.
Type I cells
Epithelial cells lining the alveoli
Type II cells
Produce pulmonary surfactant
Longing of the alveoli
Phagocytic cells
Lungs are located in what cavity
Thoracic
Thoracic cavity houses what?
Lungs, heart, great blood easels, nerves, esophagus, lesser lymph and blood vessels.
Mediastinum
Central region of the thorax, bounded on each side by a lung and by a pleural sac.
Divided by an interior, middle, posterior, and superior mediastinum.
Anterior mediastinum contains…
Few mammary vessels and lymph nodes
Middle mediastinum contains….
Heart which is surrounded by a closed membranous sac known as the pericardium
Posterior mediastinum contains….
Located behind the heart, contains part of the esophagus and trachea, some important nerve tracts and the blood vessels that supply the head.
Lung tissue is passive and….
Can not exert any force except that provided by the elastic properties of the lung, part of which can be accounted for by tissue elasticity
Properties of the alveoli
The pulmonary alveolar epithelium….
Lines the alveoli is a thin tissue and the nuclei of the cells protrude into the air spaces.
Alveoli
Surface tension
A supportive property on the surface of a liquid. An apparent tension in an actually nonexistent surface film due to attractive properties of the liquid molecules
How does the surface tension behaves like….
Stretched elastic, constantly trying to shorten and to resist further stretching.
Surface tension accounts for two opposing paradoxical properties….
Tendency of the alveoli to collapse
Tendency to collapse is responsible for about two thirds of the elasticity of lung tissue.
How does surface tension decrease
Type II alveolar cells produce a detergent like substance called pulmonary surfactant which intersperses with the liquid molecules on the alveolar surface.
Proper balance between alveolar fluid surface tension and surfactant is essential for normal respiratory function.
Right lung…
Larger than the left and is shorter and broader due to the liver which occupies the right abdominal cavity which forces the dome of the diaphragm higher on that side and accounts for the shorter lung
Left lung…
Smaller due to the heart occupying the majority of the left side of the thorax
Lungs apex
Extends above the thoracic cavity, into the root of the neck
Lungs base
Broad and concave and conforms to the thoracic surface of the diaphragm
Diaphragm
Separates the base f the right lung from the build of the liver and separates the base of the left lung from the over, stomach, spleen
Lungs lobes
Right lung
3 lobes by two fissures
Oblique fissure separates the superior from the inferior lobe.
Horizontal fissure gives rise to the small middle lobe
Lung lobes
Left lung
Divided by an oblique fissure into a superior and inferior lobe.
2 lobes
Weight of lungs
No air, sink in water
With air, float in water
The pleurae
Parietal or costal pleura
An airtight membrane that lines the Inner surface of the thoracic cavity, the thoracic cavity of the diaphragm, and the mediastinum.
Very thin and very delicate serous membrane that is continuous with the visceral pleura
Visceral pleura
Inside lining of the pleural cavity
The pleurae is composed of…
Single layer of squamous mesothelial cells resting upon a delicate connective tissue membrane. Highly vascular and contain lymphatics and nerves. exceedingly delicate.
What is the right and left pleural sacs separated by
The mediastinum which occupies the heart, blood vessels. And esophagus
Functions of the pleurae
To provide friction-free lung and thoracic surfaces.
Protective capacity
Pleurisy
Rough or inflamed pleurae that causes pain with each breath due to the accompanying friction
Pneumothorax
A puncture that results in the collapse of a lung
Pleural recesses or sinuses
Can be found in the spaces that are not occupied in the thoracic cavity.
Intrapleural space
The fluid filled space between the visceral and parietal pleurae, which is actually nonexistent but potential space between the pleurae.
The lungs have a tendency to collapse and pull away from the thoracic walls and can be accounted for by two factors….
First the inherent elasticity of lung tissue resists expansion during inhalation which accounts for about one fourth to one third of the elasticity of the lungs.
Second the surface tension in the fluid that lines the alveoli produces a tendency for the alveoli (and the lungs) to collapse.
How are the lungs linked
To the thoracic walls by way of the pleural membranes
What is pleural linkage
Movements of the thoracic walls are transmitted indirectly by the intrapleural fluids to the lungs
Throughout every breath cycle the lung surfaces are held tightly incontact with what…
The inner surface of the thoracic walls
What happens in the potential intrapleural spaces
The membranes and vascular tissues that constitute the pleurae constantly absorb gases and fluids that enter the potential intrapleural spaces which generates a sub atmospheric pressure that binds the visceral and parietal pleural membranes together
Intrapleural fluid pressure
Negative pressure of the intrapleural fluid has a value of about -10 to -12 mm Hg that acts as the linking force between the pleurae and is the force that links the lungs to the thoracic walls.
What happens in the visceral pleurae
The continuous absorption of in trapleural fluids and gases takes place during the action of inhalation and exhalation because the capillary pressure of the pulmonary system is about 7mm Hg less than the capillary pressure of the thoracic system.
The sub atmospheric intrapleural fluid pressure is
The force that acts to bind the pleural membrane tightly to one another
The pleural surface (intrapleural) pressure is
It registers the tendency for the stretched lung to recoil and pull away from the thoracic wall
What is included in the breathing mechanism
The vertebral or spinal column, the rib cage, and the pelvis, which comprise the skeleton for the torso which is the trunk of the body without the head or free extremities
Spinal column
Consist of 32 or 33 individual vertebrae
What is the vertebrae joined together by
Intervertebral cartilages and complex system of ligaments
Sections of the vertebrae
Cervical - 7 Thoracic - 12 Lumbar - 5 Sacral - 4 Coccygeal - 3 or 4
What is the sacral vertebrae fused by
Sacrum
The spine of the vertebrae serve as…
The attachment of muscles and ligaments and provide protection for the vertebral column
Two superior and two inferior articular processes
Articulate with adjacent vertebrae to form freely movable diarthrodial joints
The intervertebral discs are composed of…
Fibrocartilage
The intervertebral discs are joined
At their surfaces to thin layers of hyaline cartilage that cover the upper and lower surfaces of the bodies of the vertebrae.
The intervertebral joints are
Amphiarthrodial or yielding
The arches of the vertebrae articulate by means of
Plane synovial joints which are enveloped by relatively thin and loose articular capsules which are especially flexible in the cervical region
Cervical vertebrae distinguishing feature
Transverse foraminae
3-6 have short bifurcated (cleft) spinous process
C1
Atlas
Skull rests on c1
Has no body or spinous process.
Anterior and posterior tubercles are important landmarks in radio graphic examination.
C2
Axis
Forms a pivot around c1 and the skull rotates
Landmark is the dens or odontoid process
C7
Is distinctive because of the conspicuous spinous process which can usually be palpated at the base of the neck.
Thoracic vertebrae is distinctive because
The articular facets on their transverse processes and vertebral bodies that provide pints of attachments to the ribs.
Lumbar vertebrae
5
Large
Weight bearing
Lack transverse foraminae and articular facets on their transverse processes and vertebral bodies.
Sacrum
5
United by 4 ossified intervertebral discs.
Coccyx
Inferiority directed projection from the bottom of the sacrum.
Contains 3 - 4 fused vestigial vertebrae that articulate with the sacrum by means of a small intervertebral disc.
Sternum
Prominent midline structure locate on the anterior, superior thoracic wall.
Consists of the manubrium, the body, and the diploid process.
Manubrium
The uppermost segment of the sternum
The rib cage
Has 12 pars of ribs
1-7 articulate posteriorly with the vertebral column, course obliquely downward, and at their lowest point the osseous ribs abruptly give way to costal cartilages which course upward to articulate with the sternum.
How do the ribs articulate with the vertebral column
By means of arthrodial or gliding joints that are effected typically by two demiarticulations.
True ribs
2-7 pairs join directly with the sternum
Rib 1 articulates anteriorly by
Articulates with the sternum by means of synchondrosis.
2-7 true ribs articulate anteriorly by
True synovial joint
8-10 ribs
Indirectly connect to the sternum by means of long costal cartilages.
False ribs
Ribs 8-10
Ribs 11 and 12
Floating ribs
Floating ribs
Ribs 11 and 12
Anterior extremities are free but have vertebral attachments
During the inhalation phase of breathing, the dimensions of the thoracic cavity increase in three planes
Vertical, transverse, and anterposterior
Pelvic girdle
The paired coxal bone or the hip bone
A supporting structure to which the lower limbs are attached.
Each coxal is composed of three lesser bones, the sacrum and the coccyx.
Acetabulum
Vinegar cup
Forms the socket for the reception of the head of the femur.
The ilium, ischium, and the pubis meet at this point. These three bones constitute the coxal bone
What is the hip bone composed of
Ilium is the great bulk of the hip bone.
The posterior part of the inner surface is articulated by means of cartilaginous joint with the lateral border of the sacrum. This union is called the sacroiliac joint
Ischial tuberosity
Absorbs the weight of the body when one sits up straight and is concealed by the gluteus maximum muscle.
Greater sciatic notch
Sciatic nerve passes though
What is the pelvic girdle made up of
Coxal, sacrum and the coccyx
What is the pectoral girdle made of
The clavicle and the scapula
What does the pectoral girdle do
Provides attachment of the upper limbs to the torso
Clavicle or collarbone
Serves to project the scapula (shoulder blade) sufficiently far laterally to clear the barrel shaped chest wall.
Shaped like the italic letter f
Proximal end rides on the upper lateral margin of the manubrium of the scapula, crossing over the first rib and its distal end articulated with the caroming of the scapula.
Scapula
Thin triangular plate of bone located dorsal to the upper seven or eight ribs.
It attaches to the axial skeleton only by way of the clavicle
Glenoid fossa
Articular facet for the upper arm bone
Humerous articulate with
Glenoid fossa of the scapula
Mechanical events responsible for air exchange during quiet breathing….
Through thoracic muscle contraction, all three dimensions of the chest are increased. The anterposterior, lateral, vertical
Lungs are bound to the thoracic wall by….
Pleural linkage
Expiratory phase
Negative reassure is momentarily generated within the pulmonary alveoli.
The upper respiratory tract opens
Air rushes into the lungs until the intraalveolar pressure is the same as atmospheric.
The muscles of inhalation cease to contract somewhat gradually
The dilated thorax-lung complex rebounds to generate a slightly positive intraalveolar pressure
Air is exhaled
Quiet breathing requires
Active muscle contraction during the inspiratory phase, but the expiratory forces are passive, or nonmuscular.
How much cc of air is exchanged during each respiratory cycle in adults
500 to 750 cc
When additional air needs to be exhaled by passive means
The abdominal musculature May contract to facilitate forced exhalation.
Breathing is divided into
Functional basis - those responsible for inhalation and those responsible for exhalation.
Anatomical basis - muscles of the thorax and muscles of the abdomen.
Muscles of inhalation
Are confined largely to the thorax and accessory muscles of the neck
Muscles of exhalation
Are confined primarily to the abdomen
Muscles of the thorax (6)
Diaphragm Internal intercostals External intercostals Subcostals Transverse thoracic Costal elevators Serratus posterior superior Serratus posterior inferior
Diaphragm
Divides the torso into the thorax and abdomen
Second most important muscle in the body, first being the heart
Dome shaped, slightly higher on the right side than on the left, resemble an inverted bowl.
Diaphragm protects the
Many important abdominal organs in contact with its lower surface enjoy protection from the lower ribs, liver, spleen, and to some extent the kidneys.
Sternal portion of the diaphragm origin and insertion
Origin - margins at the outlet of the thorax
Insertion - course upward and inward and insert into the edges of the central tendon.
Costal portion of the diaphragm origin and insertion
Origin, lower boarder a dinner surfaces of he cartilages of ribs 7 - 12. Slips of muscle fibers interdigitate with those of the transverse abdominis muscles. Insert into the central tendon
Vertebral portion of the diaphragm
Origin from the upper lumbar vertebrae but means of two stout pillars of the muscle fibers known as crura. Inserts into the central tendon.
Openings of the diaphragm
Aortic hiatus - permits the descending aorta to pass from the thorax into the abdomen.
Esophageal hiatus - esophagus and small arteries pass through
Foramen vena cava - inferior vena cava, several nerve bundles, and lymph vessels pass though it.
Does the diaphragm have continuity with the torso
No
Pericardium
Membranous sac that encloses the heart. Serous pericardium lines the fibrous sac and covers the outside of the sac..
Fibrous pericardium
Flask like Sac surrounding the serous pericardium, and the great blood vessels of the heart. Extremely tough membrane and quite thick. Attaches to the Manubrium and xiophoid process. Of the sternum and the vertebral column.
The fibrous pericardium becomes part of the diaphragm
Does the heart lie unattached to it surroundings
Yes, it is held into place primarily by the blood vessels that enter and leave the heart.
Liver
Invested with peritoneum
Suspended from the diaphragm by five ligaments formed by peritoneal folds. The ligaments also connect the liver to the anterior abdominal wall, the stomach, and the duodenum.
How is the diaphragm unique
It appears to be an unpaired muscle and enjoys a bilateral nerve and blood supply.
It is a complex structure receiving muscular contributions from both sides of the body.
Intercostal muscles
Located between the ribs.
Divided into the external intercostal and the internal intercostal
External intercostals
Are a more dominant and stronger group of muscles that the internal intercostals.
11 paired
Occupy the space between the ribs
Course downward and lateral on either side of the vertebral column.
As they approach the central thoracic wall, they become less muscular and more aponeurotic.
Internal intercostals
Lie deep to the external intercostals
11
Occupy an area extending from the anterior limits of the intercostal spaces to the angle of the rib posteriorly where they are continued with the vertebral column as thin aponeuroses.
The area just lateral to the vertebral column is devoid of internal intercostal muscles, while the area immediately lateral to the sternum contains muscle fibers of just the internal intercostal muscles.
Origin, lower borders of the upper eleven ribs and course from above to insert into the inner aspect of the ribs immediately below.
Subcostals
Intracostals
Well developed on the inner posterior surface of the lower thoracic wall
Form a musculomembranous sheet that lines the back of the thorax, later to the tubercles of the ribs.
Transversus thoracis
Triangularis sterni
Inner surface of the anterior thoracic wall contains the transver subs thoracis muscles
Thin fan shaped
Origin from the posterior surface of the body of the sternum. Insert into the lower borders and inner surfaces of ribs 2 through 6.
The costal elevators
Muscle of the thorax
Twelve on either side
Arise from the transverse processes of the seventh cervical and upper eleven thoracic vertebrae. Fibers course downward and lateral ward and insert ewes the tubercle and the angle of the rib immediately below.
Serratus posterior muscles
Superior and inferior versions
Associated with the thorax
Superior arises by means of a broad tendon from the spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebrae. Insert on ribs two through five
Inferior originates by means of aponeuroses fro the spinous process of thoracic vertebrae eleven and twelve and from lumbar vertebrae one, two and three. Insert into the inferior borders of ribs eight through twelve.
Action of the diaphragm
Contraction pulls the central tendon downward and forward, the lungs are stretched producing a negative alveolar pressure. Decrease in volume and increase in pressure with in the abdominal cavity.
The descending diaphragm acts like a piston, compressing the abdominal viscera and causing them to be displaced downward and forward against the abdominal wall. As a result the abdominal wall may be distended during inhalation
During inhalation the muscle portion of the diaphragm …
Shortens and the diaphragm descends but without any substantial change in its curvature
