Chapter 2

Question 1

Ethical Dilemmas

2 ways to solve ethical dilemmas

Answer 1

Situations involving conflict between ethical principles or normative priorities.
- Dilemmas have deep impact on the evolution of ethical reflection.

Solving ethical dilemmas involves:

1) Appeal to theoretical constructs.
2) Reevaluation of established moral standards and inherited intuitions

Question 2

Consequentialist theories vs. Nonconsequentialist (or deontological) theories

Answer 2

Consequentialist theories: Those that determine the moral rightness or wrongness of an action based on the action’s consequences or results.

Nonconsequentialist (or deontological) theories: Those that determine the moral rightness or wrongness of an action based on the action’s intrinsic features or character.

Question 3

Egoism:

Egoists

Answer 3

Egoism: The view that morality coincides with the self-interest of an individual or an organization.

Egoists: Those who determine the moral value of an action based on the principle of personal advantage.

• An action is morally right if it promotes one’s long-term interest.
• An action is morally wrong if it undermines it.

Question 4

Personal egoists vs. Impersonal egoists

Answer 4

Personal egoists: Pursue their own self-interest but do not make the universal claim that all individuals should do the same.

Impersonal egoists: Claim that the pursuit of one’s self-interest should motivate everyone’s behavior.

• Egoists do not necessarily care only about pursuing pleasure (hedonism) or behave dishonestly and maliciously toward others.
• Egoists can assist others if doing so promotes their own advantage.

Question 5

Psychological egoism:

Answer 5

Psychological egoism: The theory of ethical egoism is often justified on the ground that human beings are essentially selfish.
Even acts of self-sacrifice are inherently self-regarding insofar as they are motivated by a conscious or unconscious concern with one’s own advantage.

Question 6

3 Objections to egoism

Answer 6

1) The theory is not sound - not all human acts are selfish by nature, and some are truly altruistic.
2) Egoism is not a moral theory at all: Egoism misses the whole point of morality, which is to restrain our selfish desires for the sake of peaceful coexistence with others.
3) Egoism ignores blatant wrongs: All patently wrong actions are morally neutral unless they conflict with one’s advantage.

Question 7

Utilitarianism

2 Main representatives

Answer 7

The moral theory that we should act in ways that produce the most pleasure or happiness for the greatest number of people affected by our actions.

Main representatives: Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)

Question 8

The principle of utility

Answer 8

Actions are morally praiseworthy if they promote the greatest human welfare, and blameworthy if they do not.

Question 9

Six points concerning utilitarianism:

Answer 9

1) consider net worth of each action.
2) equal individual preferences, then net worth
3) Anything can be morally praiseworthy
4) seek to maximize happiness now and in the long run.
5) avoid choosing actions when consequences are uncertain.
6) guard against bias when own interests are at stake.

Question 10

Utilitarianism in an organizational context: 3 benefits

Answer 10

Utilitarianism in an organizational context:

1) Provides a clear and straightforward standard for formulating and testing policies.
2) Offers an objective way for resolving conflicts of self-interest.
3) Suggests a flexible, result-oriented approach to moral decision making

Question 11

3 Criticisms of utilitarianism:

Answer 11

1) The practical application of the principle of utility involves considerable difficulties.
2) Some actions seem to be intrinsically immoral, though performing them can maximize happiness.
3) Utilitarianism is concerned with the amount of happiness produced, not how the amount is distributed, so the theory can run counter to principles of justice.

Question 12

Utility and self-interest:

Answer 12

Businesses are concerned with increasing profit and can be viewed as egoistic, but pursuing one’s own economic advantage can increase the well-being of society as a whole.

Question 13

Adam Smith (1723–1790):

Answer 13

The main promoter of classical capitalism who argued that society can flourish if businesses are left to freely pursue their self-interests

Question 14

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804):

Answer 14

A German philosopher with a nonconsequentialist approach to ethics.

• Said the moral worth of an action is determined on the basis of its intrinsic features or character, not results or consequences.
• Believed in good will, that good actions proceed from right intentions, those inspired by a sense of duty.

Question 15

Kant’s Philosophy of the Categorical Imperative

Answer 15

Morality as a system of laws analogous to the laws of physics in terms of their universal applicability.

The morality of an action depends on whether the maxim (or subjective principle) behind it can be willed as a universal law without committing a logical contradiction.

Question 16

An example of the categorical imperative:

Answer 16

A building contractor promises to install a sprinkler system in a project.
But he is willing to break that promise to suit his purposes.
His maxim can be expressed as: “I’ll make promises that I’ll break whenever keeping them no longer suits my purposes.”
By willing the maxim to become a universal law, the contractor undermines promises in general.

Question 17

Kant’s Ethics of perfect and Imperfect duty

Answer 17

Perfect Duty
To oneself  - Not to commit suicide
To others - To keep one’s promises
Imperfect Duty
To oneself - To cultivate one’s talents
To others  - To help others in need

Question 18

Kant’s 2 Formulations of the categorical imperative:

Answer 18

1) Universal acceptability: To determine whether a principle is a moral law, we need to ask whether the command expressed through it is acceptable to all rational agents.
2) Humanity as an end, never as a means: We must always act in a way that respects human rationality in others and in ourselves.

Question 19

Kant’s in an organizational context:(3)

Answer 19

1) The categorical imperative provides a solid standard for the formulation of rules applicable to any business circumstances.
2) Kant emphasizes the absolute value and dignity of individuals.
3) Kant stresses the importance of acting on the basis of right intentions.

Question 20

Criticisms of Kant’s ethics:

Answer 20

1) too extreme as it excludes emotion from moral decision making and makes duty paramount.
2) fails to distinguish between excepting oneself from a rule and qualifying a rule on the basis of exceptions.
3) not always clear when people are treated as ends and merely as means

Question 21

W. D. Ross (1877–1971) and his 3 beliefs

Answer 21

held that our moral experiences are too complex to be reduced to the principle of utility or the categorical imperative. His beliefs:

1) We have various duties that oftentimes come into conflict with each other.
2) There are no universal rules for the resolution of conflicts of duties.
3) Different situations generate different priority orders of duties

Question 22

Prima facie obligation:

Answer 22

Can be overridden by a more important duty in specific circumstances. Example:

• We are in conflict over the duty to keep our promise to a friend and the duty to help a person in need.
• We may have to override the promise and favor the more important duty to help the person.
• But in some other circumstances we ought to do the opposite.

Question 23

7 Basic prima facie obligation:

Answer 23

1) Duties of fidelity.
2) Duties of reparation.
3) Duties of gratitude.
4) Duties of justice.
5) Duties of beneficence.
6) Duties of self-improvement.
7) Duties not to injure others.

Question 24

Assisting others:
Nonconsequentialists believe -
Moral philosophers argue -

Answer 24

Nonconsequentialists believe that we have a much stronger obligation to refrain from violating people’s rights than to promote their happiness or well-being.

Moral philosophers argue that utilitarianism fails to distinguish between morally required acts and supererogatory acts (i.e., those acts that exceed the call of duty).

Question 25

Moral rights vs human rights

Answer 25

Moral rights: A right is an entitlement to act or have others act in a certain way. Some moral rights derive from special relationships, roles, or circumstances in which we happen to be.

Human Rights - Moral rights that are not the result of particular roles, special relationships, or specific circumstances

Question 26

4 Key features of human rights:

Answer 26

Human rights are:

1) universal.
2) applied equally to all.
3) inalienable (unable to be taken away from) and not transferable.
4) natural in that they do not depend on human institutions.

Question 27

Categories of human rights:

Negative rights vs Positive rights

Answer 27

Negative rights: Those that reflect the vital interests that humans have in being free from outside interference (such as the freedom of speech, assembly, religion, etc.)

Positive rights: Those that reflect the vital interests that humans have in receiving certain benefits (such as the right to education, medical care, equal job opportunity, etc.)

Question 28

Nonconsequentialism in an organizational context:(3)

Answer 28

1) Moral decision making involves the weighing of different moral factors and considerations.
2) This theory acknowledges that the organization has its own legitimate goals to pursue.
3) It stresses the importance of moral rights and especially human rights.

Question 29

4 Criticisms of nonconsequentialism:

Answer 29

1) Ross maintained that moral truths are known intuitively, i.e. they are self-evident.
2) Critics question whether intuition is always a reliable guide for establishing moral truths.
3) They say that appeals to intuition should be critically assessed.
4) It is not always clear how issues with conflicting rights and principles ought to be resolved.

Question 30

Rule utilitarianism

Answer 30

• modified version of utilitarianism - to avoid the criticisms directed at the classical account of utilitarianism (act utilitarianism)
• Rule utilitarians maintain that the utilitarian standard should be applied not to individual actions but to moral codes as a whole.
• Moral discriminations must be based upon the principles of an optimal moral code.

Question 31

What should an optimal moral code should look like? Rule utilitarians argue for a pluralistic moral code on three grounds:

Answer 31

• People will make mistakes if they try to calculate the results of every given action in advance.
• Important rules will be undermined if all individuals were act utilitarians.
• It is too demanding for individuals to ask them to promote total well-being.

Question 32

3 Criticisms of rule utilitarianism:

Answer 32

1) By sacrificing the priority of the principle of utility, they tend to overestimate the value of rules.
2) They are still bound by the consequentialist approach to morality, which is to evaluate the worth of various acts in terms of their results.
3) Therefore they fail to acknowledge the independent value status of moral and human rights.

Question 33

How do we reach an agreement on controversial ethical issues in business?

Answer 33

1) In any moral discussion, make sure participants agree about the relevant facts.
2) Once an agreement on factual matters is reached, try to spell out the moral principles endorsed by the participants.
3) Articulate the common grounds between the diverse ethical viewpoints of the participants.

Question 34

V. R. Ruggiero’s two-step approach to moral decision making:

Answer 34

1) Identify the relevant considerations involved – obligations, ideas, and effects.
2) Determine which of these considerations deserve emphasis in the situation at hand

Question 35

3 Guidelines for handling cases involving conflicting obligations, ideals, and effects:

Answer 35

1) Choose the stronger of two or more conflicting obligations.
2) Honor the more important of two or more conflicting ideals.
3) Of two or more rival actions, choose the one that produces the greater good or the lesser harm.

Question 36

Normative theories

Answer 36

Propose some principle(s) for distinguishing right actions from wrong actions. Can be divided I I two kinds of theories:

• consequentialist theory
• –1) egoism
• –2) utilitarianism theory
• nonconsequentiaist theory

Question 37

Supererogatory actions

Answer 37

Actions that it would be good to do but not immoral not to do it