Chapter 2 Flashcards
An integrative approach to psychopathology
What is a Psychological Disorder?
below used to define:
- Statistical infrequency - rare behaviors, can be bad or good (genius)
- Violation of norms - some behaviors done here might be labeled as an issue in a different society/culture ex. gay
- Personal suffering - possibly difficult for someone to live with their condition, not always ex. narcissism - don’t feel suffering but put distress/suffering on others
- Disability or dysfunction - caused by disorders
- Unexpectedness - acting in an unexpected way ex. share sad news with someone and not empathetic but they start laughing = unexpected, issue with just this as people deal with stress and grief differently
DSM definition of a psychological disorder?
->combined all criteria to define it: DSM 5-TR - Psychological, or biological dysfunction that are unexpected in their cultural context and associated with personal distress
What is Psychopathology?
The scientific study of psychological disorders
What are the two different model you can use in psychopathology?
- One dimensional model
- Multidimensional model
->what behaviors you’re studying determines which model to use
Describe the one dimensional approach
->attributes causes of behavior to a single cause
→linear approach
Describe the multidimensional model
->attributes causes of behavior to several causes
→gives you a bigger picture
->Biological dimension
→Causal factors from the fields of genetics and neuroscience
→ Genetic predisposition; brain structure; neurochemistry, hormones
->Psychological aspects
→ Causal factors from behavioral and cognitive processes
→ Social learning; Learned helplessness
->Emotional Dimension
→Thoughts and feelings affect body’s biology
→ Emotions lead to development of many disorders
→ Can lead to anxiety
->Social Dimension
→ Society and culture influence behavior
→ Support or rejection from friends and family
→ Receiving social attention or not
->Developmental Dimension
→ Developmental critical periods
→ More or less reactive to given situations
→ When combined with other factors, may lead to psychological disorders
What are some genetic contributions to Psychopathology?
-> Abnormalities in sex chromosomal pairing leads to abnormalities
→ Wrong ordering of genes responsible too
->Genes exert influence on our bodies and behavior
→ A few genes are turned on, or expressed
→ Environmental factors determine turning on of genes
—>someone with schizophrenia has a kid that kid may not get it simply because of genetics
->stress/environment
What are genes?
->long molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) at various locations on chromosomes within the cell nucleus
→ Every human being has a unique set of genes, except identical twins
→ Roles of nature (genes) and nurture (environment) is an ongoing debate in psychology
Describe chromosomes
-> Normal human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes
→ Each parent contributes one chromosome to each chromosome pair
→ 22 pairs provide programs for development of brain and body
→ 23rd pair - sex chromosomes
Define Polygenic
behaviors influenced by many genes
Define genome
a complete set of genes
->Humans have 20000 to 25000 genes
->Technologies allow scientists to analyze thousands of genes at once (quantitative and molecular gentics)
What’s quantitative genetics?
estimates the effects of genes in explaining individual differences, allows us to understand how much variation in eye color etc is due to genetics, doesn’t allow you to find which gene causes these genetics
What’s molecular genetics?
focuses on examining the actual structure and functioning of genes and how they interact
How do genes and the environment interact?
- The Diathesis (inheritance)–Stress Model (environmental factor):
- The Gene‒Environment Correlation Model AKA Reciprocal Gene-Environment Model
- Epigenetics
Describe the Diathesis (inheritance)–Stress Model (environmental factor)
→ Certain traits or behaviors are inherited
→ Activated under conditions of stress
→ Interaction of the two can result in abnormalities
→ The greater the underlying vulnerability, the less stress is needed to trigger a disorder
→ The smaller the underlying vulnerability, the greater the life stress required to produce the disorder
->Criticisms:
—>Researchers unable to replicate any gene effects on depression
——>Researchers found stressful life events increase risk of depression
—>Biased publication of results
Describe the Gene‒Environment Correlation Model AKA Reciprocal Gene-Environment Model
->Genetic endowment may increase probability of responding negatively to stressful events
→ Vulnerability leads to a genetic tendency to create environmental risk factors
→our genes may contribute to how we create our environment (create environments that increase probability you’ll get the disorder
Define epigenetics
->The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
->Epigenetic marks from experiences (can be prenatal as well) - Once attached can control the on and off of genes in the infected area (could turn off ability to properly cope with stress so create environment where they could develop disorder easier)
→Environment contributes to genes turning “on” or “off”
→Some epigenetic changes may pass down to future generations
What included in the central nervous system?
your brain and spinal cord
→The brain processes information from sense organs; reacts as necessary
→ Neurons transmit information throughout the nervous system
What are the parts of a neuron?
◦ Soma (cell body)
◦ Dendrites (receivers of info from other neurons)
◦ Axon (’tails’ of neuron that spread out from cell body and transit info)
◦ Axon terminals
How do neurons communicate?
->neurotransmitter in vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane and expelled and attach to receptors on postsynaptic membrane and open/close receptors, then neurot. removed from membrane by reuptake or inactivated
→SSRIS’S used in mood and anxiety disorders
What’s included in the peripheral nervous system?
somatic (controlling muscles) and autonomic system (regulates the
cardiovascular system (e.g., the heart and blood vessels) and the endocrine system’ other functions include aiding digestion, body temperature regulation)- sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic
What’s the endocrine system? Describe the pathway it takes
→produces hormones and works in conjunction with the ANS
→ Hypothalamus → pituitary gland → coordinates the endocrine system
->*Hypothalamic-Pituitary Adrenalcortical (HPA) axis implicated in several disorders
—>pathway to deal with stress
—>Cortisol is the stress hormone (helps body manage it) but don’t want it for long time
—>tells hypothalamus to stop releasing CRF
What are neurotransmitters?
->The chemical messengers of neurons
o Glutamate and GABA
o Catecholamines
* Dopamine, Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
◦ Tryptamines
* Serotonin
Describe Glutamate and GABA
Glutamate - excitatory neurot.
→ turns on many different neurons, leading to action
GABA - inhibitory neurot.
→ regulates transmission of information and action potentials
→ Inhibits a variety of behaviors and emotions
Describe the monoamine/catecholamines
- Dopamine
- Epinephrine
- Norepinephrine
Describe Dopamine
→A major neurotransmitter in the monoamine class
→used in pleasure and reward pathways
→ Implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and disorders of addiction
→ Five different DA receptor sites have been discovered (D1-D5)
Describe Norepinephrine
→Stimulates two groups of receptors called alpha-adrenergic and beta- adrenergic receptors
→ a number of norepinephrine circuits have been identified in the CNS
—->Hindbrain; Alarm responses
Describe Serotonin
→Approximately six major circuits of serotonin spread from the midbrain
→ Regulates our behavior, moods, and thought processes
—->decrease levels- increase vulnerability - impulsiveness; aggression
→Approx. 15 different receptors in the serotonin system
—-> SE has slightly different effects depending on the receptors involved
Define agonist, antagonist, and inverse agonist
Agonist:
->increase the activity of a neurotransmitter by mimicking its effects
Antagonist:
-> inhibit or block the production or activity of a neurotransmitter
Inverse agonist:
->produce effects opposite to those produced by the neurotransmitter
Describe the structure/areas of the brain
- Hindbrain
- Midbrain
- Forebrain
Describe Hindbrain
→oldest part, life sustaining functions
→Medulla: located at base of brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
→ Pons: sits above the medulla and helps coordinate movements; sleep
→Cerebellum: coordinates voluntary movements and life-sustaining functions, helps process and store information outside of awareness
Describe the midbrain
→contains reticular activating system; regulates arousal and tension
Describe forebrain
→ cerebral cortex: four lobes (frontal, occipital, temporal, parietal)
→Top of brainstem: thalamus (smell doesn’t pass thru here), hypothalamus, limbic system – (hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, septum, amygdala)
→ Cerebral cortex contains more than 80% of neurons in the CNS
→ Divided into two hemispheres; operate independently
→ Each hemisphere consists of four areas or lobes:
- Temporal: recognition of various sounds; LTM storage (autobiographical)
- Parietal: recognition of various sensations of touch
- Occipital: Integration an recognition of various visual inputs
- Frontal: Thinking; reasoning; memory (gives us edge over other species)
What are some psychosocial influences on brain structure and function?
→ Psychosurgery; Drugs (last resort as irreversible)
→ psychological therapies on brain circuit
-> Impact of placebo on brain function
Describe the impact of the psychological therapies on brain circuit
→ Brief exposure-based therapy can change brain function dramatically
→ psychotherapy does change your brain and involve new brain pathways
→ Drugs vs. CBT – CBT → changes in thinking patterns in the cortex → effects on emotional brain
—-> Top-down (CBT) and Bottom- up change (drugs) - starts from lower brain areas to high up / more advance brain areas
Describe the impact of a placebo on brain function
→Placebo effect- behavioral and emotional changes, maybe due to psychological factors such as expectations
→Interactions of Psychological Factors with Brain Structure and Function
→ Psychosocial factors directly affect levels of neurotransmitters
→ Psychological factors affect brain function and behavior
→ Nervous system structure constantly changes as a result of learning experiences
Define Classical Conditioning
->type of learning where an unconditional stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, leading to a conditioned response
EX. Pavlov’s dogs with food and bell
Define Operant Conditioning
->a learning process where voluntary behaviors are modified by association with the addition of a reward or aversive stimuli
EX. positive punishment, negative reinforcement etc
->if an organism does something that brings about a desired result, the organism is more likely to do it again
Describe the Behavioral Perspective of science and disorders
→the behavioral (learning) perspective views abnormal behavior as response learned in the same ways other human behavior is learned
→classical and operant conditioning
Describe the Cognitive Perspective of science and disorders
→cognitive psychologists regard the learner as an active interpreter of a situation, with the learner’s past knowledge imposing a perceptual funnel on their new experiences
→schemas - cognitive sets
—->new info may fit the schema but if it does not, the learner reorganizes the schema
—->mental structure - way you look at world around you based on your experiences, all incoming info passes thru here
EX. boy sees boys have short hair and girl have long, he meets girl with short hair = info clashes with lens so his lens changes a little bit
Describe conditioning and cognitive processes and how the behaviorists and cognitive views see these
→ Classical and operant conditioning facilitate learning relationships among events
→ We make judgments based on this relationship
—->which is why we can combine these together
->Behaviorists model
—>observable behavior
—>stimulus in the environment →Black Box (can’t be studied) (can’t see what’s happening in your head = shouldn’t be worried about that, brain a black box)→ behavior
—>only concerned about things you can observe
->Cognitive model
—>internal behavior
—>input in the environment →mediational process (mental events) →output (behavior)
—>important to understand what’s going on in your head
Define Learned Helplessness and identify who is associated with it
→ Martin Seligman - worked with dogs and rats, lots of stress and believed he was unable to remove that stressor
→ Encountering conditions over which we have no control
→ Giving up attempting to cope
→ Leads to depression
→ Genetics play a role
Define Learned Optimism
→ Positive psychology: instilling positive attitudes and happiness - better psychological functioning
→Genetics play a role
Define Social Learning and identify who was associated with it
->organisms can learn simply by watching others in their environment (modelling or observational learning), and our interactions with other people around us
->Albert Bandura - many times we learn by making connections/seeing other peoples behavior and their consequences. Steps in this process:
- Attention - not paying attention = not interested so not observing someone else’s behavior
- Retention - able to retain that info or will forget about it
- Reproduction - are you able to reproduce that behavior
- Motivation - are you motivated to show that behavior/learning to people
Define Prepared Learning
->the recognition that biology and genetics influence what we learn and how readily we do so (certain associations to be learned more readily than others)
—> Learning behaviors that protect us
What is a part of cognitive science and the unconscious?
->blind sight
->implicit memory
->Implicit cognition/implicit cognitive processes
—> Stroop task
What is blind sight?
->unconscious vision
->cortically blind people (sight info sent has lesion) can respond to the environment at unconscious level
EX. walking thru a hallway cluttered with stuff just as if he could see
What is implicit memory?
->uses past experiences to remember things without thinking about them
EX. procedural memory - don’t have to automatically remember how to drive our car like unlock the door, put key in ignition, put on seatbelt etc
What are Implicit cognition/implicit cognitive processes?
->unobservable, unconscious processes
->stroop task
What’s the stroop task?
→methods to study implicit cognition
→read the word “BLUE” but its printed in red color
→the interference between different info (what word says and the color of the words) → causes a problem
→2 theories:
- Speed of Processing Theory: the interference occurs because words are read faster then colors are named
- Selective Attention Theory: the interference occurs because naming colors requires more attention then reading words
What are the Cognitive Behavioral Psychotherapy Approaches (CBT)?
->cognitive restructuring
—>Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) (Beck)
—>Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (Ellis)
->Self-instructional training (Meichenbaum) – focuses on modifying what clients say to themselves about the consequences of their behavior
EX. don’t know the first couple answers on a test say “I studying a lot, I am going to do great on this test”
—>replace negative self talk with positive and it impacts you behavior
Describe emotions (& mood and affect)
->Tendency to behave in a certain way elicited by an external event and a feeling state, accompanied by a characteristic physiological response
->Usually short-lived, temporary states lasting several minutes to several hours
→ *Mood - a more persistent period of affect or emotionality
→ *Affect - usually refers to the momentary emotional tone that accompanies what we say or do
What are the cognitive components of emotions?
Involves subjective feelings that have an evaluative aspect (+ or - → known as valence)
What are the physiological components of emotions?
Activation of the autonomic nervous system
What are the behavioral components of emotions?
→ Emotions are expressed through body language and facial expressions
→see figure 2.15 on phone
Describe the link between emotions and psychopathology
->Emotion disruption (dysregulation) interferes with behavior possibly resulting in psychological disorders
EX. panic attack; Bipolar Disorder
Describe gender roles
-> Cultural expectations of men’s and women’s roles
-> Gender differences exist in rates of mood disorders
—>Two-thirds with major depression are women
——>Rumination
———>something bad happens = keep replaying/thinking about it (more so women)
———>men tend to distract themselves instead ex watch tv
——> Males more likely to get involved in other activities; self-medicate (drugs and alcohol)
->Women respond better to treatments: emotional processing (as have better recall of emotional events)
—> Eating disorders more prevalent in women
——> Pressure on women to be thin
->men less likely to discuss fears
->women more likely to seek treatment
What are the Social Effects on Health and Behavior?
→ Life expectancy and richness of life are related
→ Social phobia and depressive disorder related to (low) interpersonal contacts
->low contacts = more likely to develop some disorders
→ Psychological disorders may look different from one culture to another
What’s social stigma?
-> Psychological disorders carry societal stigma
->disorder = label
Describe lifespan development
Experiences at different periods of development influence vulnerability to:
→ Stress
→ Other psychological problems
→ Erikson’s psychosocial theory
-> The Principle of Equifinality
—> “Different paths can result from the interaction of psychological and biological factors during various stages of development.”
—> This reminds us that we must consider the various paths to a particular outcome, not just the result (shouldn’t be focused on one path)
