Chapter 2 Flashcards
What are the steps in the scientific process?
1: Initial observation or question
- Gather information and form a hypothesis (usually includes IF and WHEN)
- Test hypothesis (conduct research)
- Analyse data and draw tentative conclusion
- Report findings to scientific community
- Further research and theory building
- New hypotheses derived from theory
What is a hypothesis?
A specific prediction about some phenomenon or other.
What is a theory?
A set of formal statements that explain how and why certain events are related to one another.
What is hindsight in the context of conducting research?
Hindsight (After-the-fact understanding)
They are easy to arrive at, but the major limitation of relying solely on hindsight is that past events usually can be explained in many ways, and there is no way to know which - if any - of the explanations is correct.
The phrase post hoc, ergo propter hoc is this criticism of research findings. Means: after the event, and so, or therefore resulting from the event.
The assumption is made, after the event, that because something is observed it must be a result of the event itself. A causal relationship has been assumed even though there may well be no causal relationship at all.
But still often used. But don’t only use it.
What is understanding through prediction, control and theory building?
If we truly understand the causes of a given behaviour, then we should be able to predict the conditions under which that behaviour will occur in the future. If we can control these conditions, then we also should be able to produce that behaviour.
Theory-building is the strongest test of scientific understanding, because good theories generate an integrated network of predictions. A good theory has several important characteristics:
- It incorporates existing knowledge within a broad framework; that is, it organises information in a meaningful way.
- It is testable. it generates new hypotheses whose accuracy can be evaluated by gathering new evidence.
- The predictions made by the theory are supported by the findings of new research.
- In conforms to the law of parsimony: if two theories can explain and predict the same phenomenon equally well, the simpler theory is the preferred one.
Theories are never absolute truths.
What is a variable
A variable is any characteristic or factor that can vary.
What is an operational definition?
Defines a variable in terms of the specific procedures used to produce or measure it.
An example:
So to define the variable academic performance operationally, one could define it as students’ final examination scores, since academic performance could mean a single test score or an overall average.
What is electroencephalography or EEG?
Electroencephalography or EEG measures the activity or large groups of neurons through a series of large electrodes placed on the scalp.
A technique used to be able to operationally measure things such as behaviours.
What are self-reports and reports by others?
Self-reports are another way to measure behaviour. Self-report measures ask people to report on their own knowledge, attitudes, feelings, experiences or behaviour. This can be gathered through f.ex. interviews or questionnaires.
The accuracy of self-reports hinges on peoples’ ability and willingness to respond honestly.
Especially when questions focus on sensitive topics, such as sexual habits or drug use, self-reports may be distorted by social desirability bias, that is, the tendency to respond in a socially acceptable manner rather than according to how one truly feels or behaves.
This bias can be minimised by allowing participants to respond confidentially or anonymously. Questions can also be designed to reduce social desirability bias.
We also get information about someone’s behaviour by obtaining reports made by other people, such as parents and friends, who know the person.
What is another measurement approach?
Observations of behaviour. To observe and record overt (directly visible) behaviour.
What are unobtrusive measures?
Records behaviour in a way that keeps participants unaware that they are being observed.
This is to counter the fact that humans and animals may behave differently when they know they are being observed.
What are archival measures?
Archival records are records or documents that already exist.
Used to gather information about behaviour.
What are psychological tests?
Tests to measure variables, for example personality or intelligence tests. They are in a sense specialised self-reports.
What are physiological measures?
Physiological responses that can be recorded and measured to assess what people are experiencing. Measures of heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate etc.
What are the ethical principles adopted by professional bodies around the world?
Competence: maintenance of high levels of training, and operation within boundaries of ability.
Responsibility: performing professional duties with utmost care.
Integrity: being honest and accurate.
Respect: respecting people’s dignity, and their rights to confidentiality and self-determination.
