chapter 2 Flashcards
limits of intuition and experience
The way to compensate for our potentially biased intuitions and narrow range of experiences is to systematically collect and average evidence across many ppl
This is what it means to study psych as sceince
We should draw conclusions usuing scinetfiic methods rather than relying on intuition or experince
Scientific method
Scientists are empircists meaning they base beliefs on systematic objective observations of the wolrd
Instead of using experince or intuition, psycholgists test theri ideas by observing ppl directly
Theory data cycle
Scientifc method follows process of theory data cycle
Theory data cycle involves developing a theory abt what ppl do and collecting data that are compared with the theory - the data either cofnrim or disoncrim the theory
Theory
Set of propositions abt what ppl do and why
To test a theory researchers design a study with a specific hypothesis
Hypothesis
A prediction about what will happen based on the theoiry
Data
oberservations from a study usually in numerical form, collected from ppl at a certain time or in certain situations
Replication
Even when a single stidy supports their theory, researchers strive for more evidence because an imprtant feature of the scientifc method is replication
Replication means that the stidy has been conducted more than once on a new sample of partipcants and found the same basic results
Journals
In final step of sicnetific investigation, rsearchers make reuslts public
They share their scientfic research in specialized publications known as joruansl
Peer reviews ensure that teh research published in horunals is innovative, important and well conducted
Variable
To test a theory, researchers must choose and define the variables taht interest them
Variable is something of interest thatc an vary form person to person or situation to sitation
Variable has at least two leevls or values
Measured and manipulated variables
VAriables can be measured or manipulated
Measured variables are used in every study - they are observed and recorded
Manipulated variable is one whose levels the researcher control by assigning diff partipcants to diff levels of that variable - usually only used in expereimts
Some variables can be measured or maipulated and some can only be measured (like gender)
Operational definitions
To test a theory using sci method, research have to convert concpet of variable to qunatifiable and measurable variable - they must operationlize variable but creating operational definitions that specifiy the exact process for dterming the levels or values of each variable
Usually just turning a variable into a number so researchers can statistcally analzye data and evaluate strength of evidence for hypothesis
Self report
A way of operationlizing variable
Ppl asjed to describe temselves in survey or interview
Usually asks many similar questions
Direct observation
anotehr form of operationlzing
Researchers will specify what behaviours they are looking for
Tech can be used to observe behaviour like social media or GPS
tech can operationlize variables taht are not easily observable by researchers or particpants themselves
Types of research emthods to test theroies
Descriptive, correlational and experimental
Descriptive research tells us what do ppl do
Correlational tells us what kinds of ppl do this or whats associated with what
Experimental tells us why do ppl do this or what causes these behavours
Descriptive research
Researched focus on one measured variable at a time with the goal of describng what is typical
Descriptive research asks what do ppl do on average
Self report
Descriptive research is based on self report which usually takes teh form of a survey
Survey research provides concise summaries of a lot of ppl
Surveys allow reseacrhers to use a small group of ppl to draw conclsuions abt the larger group of ppl they came from
- The small group of ppl is sample and they particpate in reseach
- They are selecred from a larger group known as the population of interest which are the larger set of indivduals teh researcher is trying to understand or describe
Random sampling
For a sample to generalize to a population, ppl of the population of interest must have equal chance of sleection which is done by random sampling
ex. like calling random digits
Truly random sampling techniques require special planning to avoid bias
Naturalistic observation
Other descriptive method rely more on observational data where psycholgists measure vairables of interest by observing and recoridng ppls behaviour or performance
In naturalistic observatuion, psychologists observe the ebhaviour of animals or ppl in their normal, everyday wolrds and envirmnets
The goal of naturalistic research is to observe iwthout interfeing with the uaual behaviour of those being observed - so scientists will maje tehmselves unobtrusive, bledning in so the ppl theyre observing dont notice their presence
Observational research
Another method for descriptive reseacrh
Psycholgists measure their variable of interest by observing and recording what ppl are doing
Can use tech for this
Researchers also use large data sets called big data to conduct observational research
Case study
another type of method for descriptive research
These are rare conditions that are studied
An indepth exmintion of one persons experience, abilities and behaviours
These stuides can lead to theortical insights that inspire other types of research
Correlational research
Researchers measure two or more variables in order to understand the relationship between them
Can tell us how two or more variables relate to one another
Scatterplot
Data from correlational studies can be presented in a scatterplot
Each dot reps a participant, the x axis is one variable and y axis is the other
When researchers conduct correltaional research the association they observe betwene two variables can be pos, neg or zero
Correlation and causation
Even though a correltaion that is pos or neg can help us predict one vairbale from another, a correltaion, even a strong one, doesnt allow us to say that one variable causes the other
To be convinced that one variable causes the other we have to satisfy 3 conditions:
- The two variables must be correlated
- One variable has to come before the other
- There must be no reasonable alternative explanation for the pattern
Correlational studies can satisfy the first but uually not the other two
Third variable problem
Whenevr a correlation observed between two variables is actually explained by the infleunce of some third variable
one correlational study cannot rule oyt all pissble third variable probelms
Correlational studies can never support causal claums becaus ethey can never rule out all possible third variables
