Chapter 2

Question 1

An organelle is

Answer 1

an internal functional structure
that is located within the cytosol of a cell that carry out specialized functions.
- Some isolate harmful substances or provide environments for reactions not possible in the cytosol.
- some manage transport & maintain fluid balance in the cytosol.
- shapes of some organelles=elaborate cuz each organelle is adapted to perform a specific function

Question 2

Plant cells differ from animal cells BECAUSE

Answer 2

plants and animals have very different
requirements for obtaining food and energy.

fungi have many of the same organelles as plants & animals . Fungi-like animals are heterotrophic, while the protist kingdom includes both heterotrophs and photosynthetic autotrophs

Question 4

The most complex of all cells are

Answer 4

those of some single celled protists.

Question 5

plasma membrane is

Answer 5

a dynamic (characterized by constant change-GOOGLE) barrier that surrounds the cytosol of the cell
- maintains an internal environment that allows
the organelle to carry out its particular function.
- control the amounts and types of substances that move in and out of the cell

Question 6

The nucleus is

Answer 6

an organelle that contains & protects almost all the DNA (genetic material) in a eukaryotic cell
–> keeps DNA away from activity of the cytosol & from the metabolic reactions that might damage it
- Small amounts of DNA are present in 2
other organelles= chloroplasts & mitochondria

Question 7

The nuclear envelope is

Answer 7

a two-layer membrane that surrounds the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell –> conists of 2 lipid bilayers folded together
- the outer layer connected to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
- Various proteins like receptors & transporters, are embedded in these bilayers. Others collect in tiny
pores that span the membrane
–> they help facilitate molecule transport across the nuclear membrane

Question 8

Transport Across the Nuclear Membrane

Answer 8

Like other membranes, the nuclear envelope permits water and gases to cross freely,
- other substances require specific transporters and pumps located across the nuclear membrane to move between the nucleus and the cytosol.
- This selective transport system controls the entry and exit of molecules, ensuring the appropriate molecules involved in processes like DNA transcription into RNA and protein synthesis move in and out at the right times.

Question 9

Nuclear membrane: Regulation and Protection of DNA

Answer 9

By regulating what molecules cross the nuclear membrane, the cell safeguards its DNA and controls RNA and protein production.

Proteins attached to the inner surface of the nuclear envelope help organize and anchor DNA, and play a role in passing DNA to daughter cells during mitosis.

Question 10

Nucleolus

Answer 10

The nucleus also contains at least one nucleolus
(plural: nucleoli), a dense irregularly shaped region where subunits of ribosomes are assembled from proteins and RNA.

Question 11

Nucleoplasm is

Answer 11

is a viscous fluid that is similar to cytosol located in the nucleus contains nucleoplasm, which is enclosed by the nuclear envelope.

Question 12

The Endomembrane System is

Answer 12

a group of interacting organelles between the nucleus & the plasma membrane
- main function is to make lipids, enzymes,
and other proteins for secretion or insertion into cell membranes
- other specialized functions include destroying toxins & recycling wastes
- The components of the endomembrane system vary among different types of cells, but the most
common components are: Nucleus, the ERs, Golgi body, & vesicles

Question 13

The Endoplasmic Reticulum is

Answer 13

a membrane-bound organelle that is folded into flattened sacs and tubes, and is an extension of the nuclear envelope

Question 14

Rough ER

Answer 14

• areas of endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes attached to the surface
• 1000s of ribosomes are attached to the outer surface of rough ER –> ribosomes synthesize polypeptide chains, which are released into the interior of the ER. Inside the ER, the proteins fold and take on their complex structure.
• Some of these proteins become part of the ER membrane, & others are sent to different cell parts.
• Cells that produce, store, & secrete large amounts of protein, such as gland cells in the pancreas, contain a lot of rough ER. –> Ex, ER-rich gland cells in the pancreas make and secrete enzymes that help to digest food in the small intestine.

Question 15

Two kinds of ER—rough ER and smooth ER—are named for their _______________________________________

Answer 15

appearance in electron micrographs

Question 16

smooth ER

Answer 16

areas of the endoplasmic reticulum without attached ribosomes
- does not make proteins
- Some of the polypeptides made in the rough ER end up in the smooth ER as enzymes
–>These enzymes produce most of the cell’s membrane lipids.
- They also break down carbs, fatty acids, & some drugs & poisons.

Question 17

Vesicles are

Answer 17

a small, membrane-bound, saclike organelles, organelle that may transport, store, or digest substances within a cell
- are many types of vesicles with many different functions
- Some types transport proteins from one organelle to another, or to and from the plasma membrane

Question 18

A peroxisome is

Answer 18

a type of vesicle
- contains enzymes that digest fatty acids & amino acids
- Peroxisomes form & divide on their own and have a variety of functions like inactivating hydrogen peroxide, a toxic by-product of fatty acid
breakdown
- Enzymes like catalase, in the peroxisomes convert hydrogen peroxide to H2O & O2, or they use hydrogen peroxide in reactions that break down alcohol & other toxins

Question 19

Vacuoles

Answer 19

• a type of vesicle in both plant and animal cells
  a liquid-filled organelle that stores waste and aids in cellular metabolism and water balance
• Vacuoles seem empty under microscope but act like “trash cans,” isolating and disposing of wastes, debris, and toxic materials.
• fluid pressure keeps structures firm

Question 20

Vacuoles: plants vs animals

Answer 20

• Plant cells have a large central vacuole where amino acids, sugars, ions, wastes, & toxins accumulate in a water-filled space.
• The fluid pressure inside the central vacuole helps keep plant cells, and structures like stems and leaves, firm.
• Usually, the central vacuole takes up 50 to 90 % of the cell’s interior
• Plant cells have bigger vacuoles than animal cells as they need to store food & water. This is cuz plants don’t have the ability to move freely like animals. (GOOGLE)

Question 21

Lysosomes are

Answer 21

a small vesicle that contains digestive enzymes that aid in waste disposal
- its a type of vesicles that contain powerful digestive enzymes
- They fuse with vacuoles that carry particles or molecules for disposal, such as worn-out cell components.
- Lysosomal enzymes empty into these vacuoles and digest their contents.

Question 22

A Golgi Body is

Answer 22

an organelle with folded membranes that usually looks like a stack of pancakes where the final packaging of proteins occurs
- Enzymes in a Golgi body put finishing touches on polypeptide chains and lipids that have been
delivered from the ER.–> They attach phosphate groups or sugars, & they cleave certain polypeptide chains.
- The end products (membrane proteins, proteins for secretion, and enzymes) are sorted & packaged into new vesicles that carry them to the plasma membrane or to lysosomes
- vesicles like lysosomes are found near it

Question 23

Mitochondria are

Answer 23

The mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria) is an organelle with two membranes; the site of most
ATP synthesis during aerobic cellular respiration
- In plants & animals, most ATP is produced in a series of reactions that occur inside the mitochondria & require O2 from the breath u take
- These reactions can extract more energy from organic compounds than any other metabolic pathway.

Question 24

The number of mitochondria varies based on….

Answer 24

the type of cell and the type of organism
- Cells that have a very high demand for energy tend to have many mitochondria.
- Ex, a single-celled yeast (a type of fungus) may have only one mitochondrion, whereas a human skeletal muscle cell may have a >= 1000.

Question 25

Mitochondria Structure

Answer 25

Typical mitochondria=1-4 μm in length, few are as long as 10 μm.
- some are branched
- can change shape, split in two, and fuse together
- A mitochondrion has 2 membranes: 1 highly folded inside the other
–> This arrangement creates 2 compartments:
1) the mitochondrial matrix= the interior of the mitochondrion
2) the intermembrane space= the space between the 2 mitochondrial membranes

Question 26

Mitochondria resemble… Elaborate

Answer 26

bacteria in size, form, and biochemistry
- They have their own DNA, which is similar to bacterial DNA
- They divide independently of the cell
& have their own ribosomes
- Such clues led to the widely accepted
endosymbiosis theory. –> mitochondria evolved from aerobic bacteria that took up permanent residence inside a host cell.

Question 27

A plastid is

Answer 27

a membrane-bound organelle that is involved in photosynthesis & storage in plants and algae
- Chloroplasts, chromoplasts, & amyloplasts are common types of plastids.

Question 28

A chloroplast is

Answer 28

a double-membrane-bound organelle that contains enzymes & pigments that are used to perform
photosynthesis in eukaryotic cells
- Most chloroplasts= oval or disk shape.
- the 2 outer membranes enclose a semifluid interior
called the stroma. (fluid-filled space that is
surrounding the grana - where
light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis take place)
- The stroma contains enzymes and the chloroplast’s DNA.

• In the stroma, a 3rd highly folded membrane forms a single compartment.
• In many ways, chloroplasts resemble photosynthetic bacteria. Like mitochondria, they may have evolved by endosymbiosis.

Question 29

A Chromoplast is

Answer 29

an organelle that makes & stores pigments other than chlorophyll
- They have an abundance of orange & red carotenoids, the pigments that colour many flowers, leaves, fruits, and roots. –> These colourful pigments are revealed in the autumn, when the chlorophyll in some plant leaves is broken down (due to lack of sunlight ig) & the bright fall colours of yellows, oranges, & reds are visible.
- The carotenoids are also visible in fruits. Ex, as a tomato ripens, its green chloroplasts are converted to red chromoplasts, & its colour changes

Question 30

An amyloplast is

Answer 30

an unpigmented plastid (an organelle) that stores starch grains
- They are abundant in the cells of stems, tubers (underground stems), & seeds.
- In some plant cells, amyloplasts function as gravity-sensing organelles

Question 31

The Cytoskeleton is

Answer 31

a dynamic system of protein filaments that provides cell structure, helps with cell division, and enables the
cell and inner organelles to move around
- between nucleus and plasma membrane
- Parts of the cytoskeleton reinforce,
organize, and move cell structures, and often the whole cell.
- Some cytoskeleton structures are permanent, whereas others only form at certain times

Question 32

A microtubule is

Answer 32

a long, hollow cylinder that consists of subunits of the protein tubulin. –> part of cytoskeleton
- form a dynamic scaffolding for many cellular processes, rapidly assembling when they are needed and disassembling when they are not.
- Ex, some microtubules assemble before a eukaryotic cell divides, separate the cell’s duplicated chromosomes, & then disassemble. —> spindle fibres=are made of microtubules

Question 33

A microfilament is

Answer 33

a fibre structure made from actin that is part of the cytoskeleton & is located in the cytosol of cells –> they strengthen or change the shape of eukaryotic cells.
- Actin microfilaments form at the edge of eukaryote cell, & drag or extend it in a certain direction

• In muscle cells, microfilaments of myosin & actin interact to bring about contraction

Question 34

Intermediate filaments

Answer 34

the most stable part of a cell’s cytoskeleton.
- They consist of fibrous proteins, each with a globular head and tail and a rodlike centre.
- strengthen and maintain cell and tissue structures and are the toughest of the cytoskeleton filaments.
- r in the cytosol & nucleus of most animal cells.
- r more permanent fixtures of cells than microfilaments & microtubules (GOOGLE)

Question 35

Organized arrays of microtubules are found in eukaryotic ____________ & _________

Answer 35

flagella(singular: flagellum), cilia (singular: cilium)

Question 36

A flagellum is

Answer 36

a whiplike tail that is used in propulsion of both prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells
- Ex, a sperm has a flagellum
- longer & less abundant than cilia

Question 37

cilia are

Answer 37

tiny hairlike structures that propel motile cells through fluid and stirs fluid around stationary cells
-move water and mucus in eukaryotes –> Ex, coordinated motion of cilia on cells that line your airways sweeps particles away from your lungs
- used for movement of prokaryotic cells

Question 38

Structure of Flagella & Cilia

Answer 38

Both are whiplike structures made of organized arrays of microtubules.
- Microtubules arranged in a special array run lengthwise through flagella and cilia, stabilized by protein spokes and links.
- These microtubules originate from a centriole, located below the structure once it forms.

Question 39

Pseudopods

Answer 39

• AKA “false feet”
  temporary irregular lobes that bulge outward to move and feed on prey
• formed by amoebas and other types of eukaryotic cell
• elongated microfilaments force the lobes to advance in a steady direction.

Question 40

A cell wall is

Answer 40

a porous structure that surrounds the plasma membrane that protects, supports, & gives shape to the cell
- found in plant cells & in many protist & fungal cells
- Water & many solutes easily cross it on the way to and from the plasma membrane.
- The cell wall has a primary wall and develops a secondary wall during later stages of growth

Question 41

Cell wall: primary wall is

Answer 41

a cellulose coating that surrounds a plant cell.
- It’s thin and pliable allowing the growing plant cell to enlarge.
- At maturity, the cells in some plant tissues stop enlarging and start secreting a material onto the
inner surface of the primary wall. –> This material forms a firm secondary wall

Question 42

Cell Wall: Secondary wall is

Answer 42

a coating that is added to a plant cell wall; it is more rigid and often thicker than the primary cell wall

Question 43

Also, some plant cells are covered in an outer _________ _______ which helps …..

Answer 43

waxy cuticle

protect exposed surfaces of soft parts of the plant and limits water loss on hot, dry days.

Question 44

extracellular matrix (ECM) is

Answer 44

a molecular system that supports and protects a cell; a cell’s environment

( is a network of proteins and other molecules that surround and support cells in tissues. GOOGLE)

• This non-living, complex mixture of fibrous proteins and polysaccharides is secreted by cells and varies with the type of tissue
• It supports & anchors cells, separates tissues, and functions in cell signalling.
• The primary cell wall is a type of ECM, which is mostly cellulose in plants.
• The ECM of fungi is mainly chitin.

Question 45

Extracellular Matrix (ECM) in Animals

Answer 45

• In most animals, the ECM consists of various kinds of carbohydrates and proteins.
• ECM is the basis of tissue organization, and it provides structural support.
  –> Ex, bone is mostly ECM –> Bone ECM is mostly collagen, a fibrous protein, and it is hardened by mineral deposits.
• Other protective structures, such as an insect exoskeleton or a bivalve shell, are also examples
  of ECM

Question 46

A cell junction is

Answer 46

a structure that allows cells to interact with each other and the surrounding environment
- In multicellular organisms, cell junctions are structures that connect a cell to other cells and to the environment.
- Cells send and receive ions, molecules, and signals through some junctions.
- Other junctions help cells recognize and stick to each other and to the ECM

Question 47

Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is

Answer 47

a genetic disorder that impairs the lungs and gastrointestinal tract.
- caused by mutations in the gene that codes for the (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator) CFTR protein.
- In CF, this process is disrupted, leading to thick, sticky mucus in lungs and gastrointestinal tract.
- When this happens in the lungs, breathing becomes difficult because mucus blocks the airways. –>this buildup of mucus also makes CF patients at risk for bacterial infections.
- In the GI system, thick mucus can clog pancreatic ducts, blocking enzymes that would normally enter the small intestine. –> This can destroy pancreas & thus the ability to produce necessary digestive enzymes. –> CF patients take dietary supplements to survive

Question 48

CFTR’s function in healthy cells

Answer 48

• CFTR functions as a membrane transport protein in healthy cells. –> It moves chloride ions (Cl⁻) out of cells lining the lungs and intestinal tract into the mucus.
• This creates an electrical gradient that pulls sodium ions (Na⁺) in the same direction.
• The movement of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ causes water to flow into the mucus by osmosis, keeping it hydrated.

Question 49

About 1 in ______ Canadian children are born with Cystic Fibrosis

Answer 49

3900
- treatment of CF patients is slowly improving but average lifespan = 40 years.

Question 50

Cystic Fibrosis Treatment

Answer 50

Patients may have lung transplants as the disease progresses, but no cure
- CF is caused by a defect to a single gene= hope is in gene therapy to correct the CFTR gene mutation in the affected cells –> There are many technical hurdles

Question 51

Why is one of the key factors in the evolution of the cell the development of the cell membrane?

Answer 51

• The semipermeable plasma membrane regulated the intake of nutrients & the elimination of waste
• also maintained a controlled environment for metabolic processes.
• Internal membranes later evolved, allowing compartmentalization of cellular functions –> enabling more complex processes to occur within cells.–>Ex, The nuclear envelope found in eukaryotic cells.

Question 52

The Fluid Mosaic Model is

Answer 52

the idea that a biological membrane are not rigid and consist of a fluid phospholipid bilayer, in which proteins are embedded and float freely
–> Membranes are described as a fluid because the lipid & protein molecules are generally free to move laterally within the two layers.
- wide array of proteins = mosaic

Question 53

Lipid molecules in cell membranes characteristics

Answer 53

• are highly dynamic or fluid, which is critical for membrane function.
• The lipid molecules exist in a double layer, called
  a bilayer, that is less than 10 nm (nanometres) thick
• Millions times/second, the lipid molecules may
  vibrate, flex back and forth, spin around their long axis, move sideways, and exchange places within the same half of the bilayer

Question 54

Proteins in cell membranes

Answer 54

Membranes contain a mosaic= wide assortment of proteins
- Some proteins are involved in transport and attachment.
- Others are enzymes that are used in a variety of biochemical pathways.
- Cuz the proteins are larger than the lipid molecules, they move more slowly in the fluid environment of the membrane.
- small number of membrane proteins anchor cytoskeleton filaments to the membrane, & thus do not move

Question 55

Several of the lipid and protein components of some membranes have carbohydrate groups linked to them, forming _____________ and ________________ that face the exterior of the cell

Answer 55

glycolipids, glycoproteins
- These molecules often play a role in cell recognition and cell–cell interactions. (rmr lego analogy)

Question 56

A glycolipid is

Answer 56

any membrane lipid that is bound to a carbohydrate
- can contain saturated & unsaturated components (Ms. Akhtar)

Question 57

A glycoprotein is

Answer 57

a membrane component that contains a sugar/ carbohydrate bound to an amino acid

Question 58

The plasma membrane is

Answer 58

the outer cell membrane (AKA cell membrane) & is responsible for regulating the substances moving in & out of the cell

Question 59

Myelin is

Answer 59

a membrane that functions to insulate nerve fibres, is composed mostly of lipids (18 % protein and 82 % lipid)

Question 60

Membrane asymmetry

Answer 60

• important characteristic of membranes
  The proteins & other components of one half of the lipid bilayer differ from those that make up the
  other half of the bilayer
  –> Thus, proteins and components in the outer half perform different functions than those in the inner half. For instance…
• External half: Contains glycolipids and glycoprotein
• Internal half: Contains cytoskeleton bound to proteins.

Question 61

Membrane Asymmetry: Hormones & growth factors

Answer 61

• Hormones and growth factors bind to receptor proteins found only on the external surface, initiating signaling cascades inside the cell.
• Their binding triggers changes to distinctly different
  protein components found on the inner surface of the membrane, spurring a cascade
  of reactions that send a signal within the cell
  –> Ex, Serotonin, a neurotransmitter, communicates between nerve cells, and its imbalance can lead to depression.–> Drugs can regulate serotonin levels to treat depression symptoms.

Question 62

The Role of Phospholipids in cell membranes

Answer 62

The dominant lipids found in membranes= phospholipids
- A phospholipid = two fatty acid tails, which are usually linked to glycerol, a phosphate group, & a polar compound like choline
- This composition is vital for membrane function –> The fatty acid tails= hydrophobic & phosphate head= hydrophilic
- In H2O, phospholipids form a bilayer—two lipid molecules thick.
- This bilayer forms spontaneously cuz hydrophobic tails cluster together, & hydrophilic heads interact with H2O.
- The bilayer structure represents the lowest energy state, making it the most stable & likely arrangement.–>The formation of the bilayer structure is spontaneous because it lowers the overall energy of the system by avoiding unfavorable hydrophobic interactions with water and maximizing favorable hydrophilic interactions –> Essentially, its the least the energy costing configuration, thus it is favoured

Question 63

The fluidity of the lipid bilayer is dependent on____________________________________________

Answer 63

on how tightly the lipid molecules can pack together.

Two factors influence packing: lipid composition and temperature
- Saturated fatty acids (no double bonds) have straight shapes, allowing tight packing.
- Unsaturated fatty acids (with double bonds) have bent shapes (rmr kinks), resulting in looser packing.
- Membranes remain fluid over a range of temperatures but can form a semisolid gel at lower temperatures.
- @ any given temp, fluidity of a membrane is related to the degree to which the membrane lipids are unsaturated. The more unsaturated a membrane is, the lower its gelling temperature

Question 64

Sterol is

Answer 64

a type of steroid (4 attached carbon rings) with an OH group at one end and a non-polar hydrocarbon chain at the other

Question 65

Besides lipids, a group of compounds called __________ also influence membrane fluidity

Answer 65

sterols
- Cholesterol, a sterol, is found in animal cell membranes but not in plant or prokaryotic membranes.
- At high temp, sterols reduce membrane fluidity by restraining lipid movement.
- At low temp, sterols prevent the membrane from becoming a non-fluid gel by filling spaces between lipid molecules and keeping them apart.
- Sterols act as membrane stabilizers, ensuring proper membrane function across temperature changes.

Question 66

Membrane proteins can be separated into the following four functional categories. List Them.

Answer 66

• Transport
• Enzymatic Activity
• Triggering Signals
• Attachment & Recognition

All of these functions may exist in a single membrane, & one protein or protein complex may serve more than one of these function

Question 67

The Role of Membrane Proteins: Transport

Answer 67

• Many substances can’t freely diffuse through the lipid bilayer of membranes.
• Instead, some compounds can cross the membrane through hydrophilic protein channels
• Certain membrane proteins can undergo shape changes to shuttle molecules across the membrane from one side to the other.

Ms.Akhtar
Passive Transport= no ATP needed –> material travels with help of concentration gradient (high conc to low conc)

Active Transport= ATP needed –> material needs to travel against concentration gradient, & therefore u need energy

Question 68

The Role of Membrane Proteins: Enzymatic activity

Answer 68

Some membrane proteins, such as those associated with respiration and photosynthesis, are enzymes.

Question 69

The Role of Membrane Proteins: Triggering signals

Answer 69

• Membrane proteins may bind to specific chemicals, such as hormones.
• Binding to these chemicals triggers changes on the inner surface of the membrane, starting a cascade of events within the cell

Question 70

The Role of Membrane Proteins: Attachment & recognition

Answer 70

• Membrane proteins exposed to both internal and external surfaces serve as attachment points for cytoskeletal elements and extracellular matrix components.
• they play roles in cell–cell recognition and help bond cells to the extracellular matrix.
• Ex, surface proteins can recognize elements of disease-causing microbes that may try to invade cells,
  triggering an immune response.

Question 71

Beyond function, all membrane proteins can be separated into 2 additional categories. List them

Answer 71

Integral & Peripheral membrane proteins

Question 72

An integral membrane protein is

Answer 72

a protein that is embedded in the lipid bilayer
- All integral membrane proteins have at least one region that interacts with the hydrophobic core of the membrane.
- However, most integral proteins are transmembrane proteins –> they span the entire membrane bilayer (vertically, Im pretty sure?) and have regions that are exposed to the aq environment on both sides of the membrane

Question 73

A peripheral membrane protein is

Answer 73

a protein on the surface of the membrane
- do not interact with the hydrophobic core of the membrane
- Peripheral proteins are held to membrane surfaces by non-covalent bonds (hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds) –> usually by interacting with exposed portions of integral proteins as well as directly with membrane lipid molecules
- Most peripheral proteins are found on the cytosol side of the membrane.
–> Some peripheral proteins are part of the cytoskeleton. Ex, microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments, & proteins that link the cytoskeleton together.
- These proteins hold some integral membrane
proteins in place via these interactions

Question 74

The transmembrane exchange of materials is not limited to the outer surface of the cell. Elaborate.

Answer 74

• many substances must be able to cross the organelle membranes in eukaryotes.
• In mitochondria & chloroplasts, chemical reactions take place in the internal fluids, separated from cytosol by 2 or 3 membrane layers.
  –>for these reactions to occur, reactants must be able to enter the organelle, while products must be permitted to leave.

Question 75

Passive Transport is

Answer 75

the movement of a substance across a membrane without spending energy
- Diffusion drives passive transport

Question 76

Diffusion is

Answer 76

the net movement of a substance from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. –>occurs cuz molecules are in constant motion & in an ideal closed environment, tend to become uniformly distributed in space.
- the primary mechanism of solute movement in cells & between cellular compartments separated by a membrane.
- As diffusion proceeds, there is a net movement of molecules in one direction until the concentrations on both sides of the membrane are equal.

Question 77

The rate of diffusion depends on….

Answer 77

the concentration diff, or concentration
gradient, that exists between two areas or across a membrane.
- The larger the gradient= faster the rate of diffusion

Question 78

Dynamic Equilibrium is

Answer 78

the state in which continuous action results in balanced conditions –> However, there is no net change in concentration
- after the conc of molecules or ions is = in both regions, the molecules or ions continue to move from one region to another

Question 79

Membranes have selective permeability, which means?

Answer 79

which means that some molecules can diffuse very rapidly across a membrane while other molecules are unable to transit the membrane without assistance

Question 80

What factors determine the ease with which a molecule or ion can move across a membrane?

Answer 80

Size & Charge

Question 81

There are 2 types of passive transport. List them

Answer 81

simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion

Question 82

Simple diffusion is

Answer 82

the ability of small & non-polar substances to move across a membrane unassisted
- Ex, O2 and CO2, are readily soluble in the hydrophobic interior of a membrane & move rapidly from one side to the other
- Non-polar steroid hormones & non-polar drugs can also cross a membrane easily

• Small uncharged molecules, such as H2O & glycerol, even though they are polar, are still able to move quite rapidly across a membrane. –> but less than O2 & CO2 i think
• In contrast, most membranes r basically impermeable 2 large molecules & ions. –> relative to
  transport of water, the movement of small ions is about one-billionth the speed.

Question 83

Facilitated Diffusion is

Answer 83

the facilitated transport of ions & polar molecules  through a membrane via protein complexes that span the membrane –> happens cuz the slow rate of simple diffusion of these substances may not keep up with the demand that metabolic processes
- Although facilitated diffusion involves specific transporters, movement of the molecules & ions is still driven by diffusion based on a concentration gradient across the membrane. –> When equilibrium is reached, facilitated diffusion stops.

Question 84

transport proteins are

Answer 84

an integral membrane protein that carry out facilitated diffusion of molecules to cross a membrane
- Many transport proteins r very selective about which solutes they carry. –> Ex, those that carry glucose r unable to transport fructose, which is structurally very similar. –> This specificity allows for tight control over what gets in and out of cells & cellular compartments. - The types of transport proteins that r present in the plasma membrane & on the outer membrane of mitochondria depend ultimately on the type of cell & growth conditions
- There are 2 types of transport proteins: channel proteins & carrier proteins

Question 85

A channel protein is

Answer 85

a hydrophilic pathway in a membrane that enables H2O & ions to pass through
- Other channel proteins facilitate the transport of ions such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, & Cl-
- Most of these ion channels, occuring in all eukaryotes, are voltage-gated channels–> switching between open & closed states in response to membrane voltage changes or signal molecules.
- In animals, voltage-gated ion channels r critical for nerve conduction & control of muscle contraction.
- Malfunctioning ion channels in humans can cause muscle ion channel diseases, leading to symptoms like muscle stiffness or weakness.

Question 86

A Carrier protein is

Answer 86

a protein that binds to a molecule and transports it across the lipid bilayer
- Each carrier protein binds to a specific solute, like a glucose molecule or a particular amino acid, & transports it across the lipid bilayer
- Diffusion= driving mechanism for moving a solute down its concentration gradient, but it would not be able to move through the membrane without carrier proteins.
- When transporting, the carrier protein changes shape, allowing the solute to move from one side of the membrane to the other

Question 87

In facilitated diffusion, the rate of diffusion across the membrane is influenced not only by…. but also…

Answer 87

not only by the concentration gradient & the efficiency of the transport protein but also by the # of transport proteins – The rate of diffusion across a
membrane increases as the difference
in concentration increases. In facilitated
transport, the maximum rate is reached
quickly but is limited by the number
of available transport proteins in the
membrane

Question 88

Osmosis is

Answer 88

the passive diffusion of water across a membrane
- In living cells, the inward or outward movement of H2O by osmosis develops forces that can cause cells to swell or shrink.
- H2O always diffuses from an area of lower solute concentration (high water concentration) to an area of greater solute concentration (low water concentration) & is thus influenced by any diff or change in solute concentration on either side of a membrane.

Question 89

Tonicity (slideshow)

Answer 89

Refers to the concentration of solutesActive Membrane Transport
- a relative term comparing two different solutions

Question 90

hypotonic

Answer 90

the property of a solution that has a lower solute concentration than another solution
- If the solution that is surrounding a cell contains dissolved substances at lower
concentrations than they are in the cell, the solution is said to be hypotonic to the cell.
- When a cell is in a hypotonic solution, H2O enters by osmosis and the cell tends to swell –> Animal cells in a hypotonic solution may actually swell to the point of bursting.

Question 91

hypertonic

Answer 91

the property of a solution that has a higher solute concentration than another solution
- an organism in a solution that contains salts or other molecules at higher concentrations than they are in its body must expend energy to replace the H2O that is lost by osmosis

Question 92

Isotonic

Answer 92

the property of a solution that has the same solute concentration as another solution
- The concentration of water inside & outside cells is equal

Question 93

active transport is

Answer 93

the movement of substances across membranes against their concentration gradient using pumps
- it is an energy-dependent process, usually ATP, to pump molecules across a membrane.
–> Scientists estimate that about 25 % of a cell’s energy requirements are for active transport.

• Using “pumps,” active transport is able to concentrate specific compounds inside cells & push others out
  –> Ex, in muscle cells, the calcium ion conc in one compartment can be as much as 30 000 times as great as the calcium ion concentration in another
  compartment. –> Such a huge concentration difference, which is necessary for normal muscle function, is established & maintained through active transport

Question 94

Primary Active Transport

Answer 94

All primary active transport pumps move positively charged ions, such as H+, Ca2+, Na+, & K+, across membranes.
- These pumps establish their own conc gradients that are crucial for cellular functions.
- H+ (proton) pump: in the plasma membrane pushes H+ ions from the cytosol to the cell exterior. This pump temporarily binds to a phosphate group removed from ATP during the pumping cycle
- Ca2+ (calcium) pump: Pumps calcium from the cytosol to the cell exterior and into the ER vesicles.
- Na+/K+ (sodium–potassium) pump: located in plasma membrane pushes 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ ions into the cell, simultaneously.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7NY6XdPBhxo

Question 95

Voltage (an electrical potential difference) across the plasma or internal membrane is

Answer 95

a difference in electrical charge on either side of the membrane.
- This diff results from an unequal net distribution of the many cations & anions
- Differences in the various ion concentrations are the result of both passive & active transport, & chem reactions that take place on both sides of the membrane
- The combined effects of the voltage and the differences in ion conc create an electrochemical gradient.

Question 96

An electrochemical gradient is

Answer 96

a form of stored potential energy that can be used for other transport mechanisms.
- Ex, the electrochemical gradient across the plasma membrane is involved in the movement of ions associated with nerve impulse transmission
- created by the combined effects of a diff in electrical
potential energy (voltage) & a diff in the conc gradients of ions

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7NY6XdPBhxo

Question 97

Secondary Active Transport

Answer 97

• Secondary active transport uses the concentration gradient of an ion, created by a primary pump, as its energy source.
• Ex, the driving force for most secondary active transport in animal cells is the high outside/low inside Na+ gradient set up by the sodium–potassium pump
• Secondary active transport refers to the movement of molecules across a cell membrane using the energy derived from the movement of ions down their concentration gradient, which was initially established by a primary active transport pump (like the sodium–potassium pump). The process does not directly use ATP, but rather the energy stored in these ion gradients.

Question 98

2 mechanisms facilitate secondary active transport: List them & elaborate

Answer 98

symport & antiport
SYMPORT
- In symport, the solute (the molecule being transported) and the driving ion (like Na+) move through the same membrane channel in the same direction.
- The movement of the driving ion down its gradient provides the energy needed to bring the solute along with it.
- Ex, the sodium-glucose symporter, which uses the Na+ gradient to transport glucose into cells.

ANTIPORT
- In antiport, the driving ion moves in one direction through the membrane channel, while another molecule (solute) is transported in the opposite direction.
- The energy released by the driving ion moving down its concentration gradient powers the active transport of another molecule against its own gradient.

• Ex, in Na+/Ca2+ antiport, Na+ moves into the cell while Ca2+ is pumped out.
• The ion moving down its electrochemical gradient= the driving ion because it is movement of this ion that drives the uphill movement of another ion/molecule (driven ion/molecule)

Question 99

The largest molecules that can be transported across a cellular membrane by passive or active transport are…

Answer 99

about the size of amino acids or monosaccharides such as glucose.

Question 100

What are the 2 mechanisms by which eukaryotic cells can export and import larger molecules .

Answer 100

exocytosis & endocytosis
- Exocytosis & endocytosis also contribute to the back-and-forth flow of portions of actual membranes between the endomembrane system & the plasma membrane.
- Both exocytosis and endocytosis require
energy. –>both processes stop if the ability of a cell to make ATP is inhibited

Question 101

Endocytosis

Answer 101

• IMPORT is done by endocytosis= carry proteins, larger aggregates of molecules, or even whole cells from cell exterior into cytosol
• Takes place in most eukaryotic cells

STEPS
1) proteins & other substances are trapped in a pit-like depression that bulges inward from the plasma membrane
2) The depression then pinches off as an endocytic vesicle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ztyiciTDsc

Question 102

Exocytosis

Answer 102

• EXPORT of materials is done by exocytosis= primarily
  secretory proteins & some waste from the cytosol to cell exterior
• All eukaryotic cells secrete materials outside the cell through exocytosis
• Ex, glandular cells in animals secrete peptide hormones or milk proteins, & cells lining the digestive tract secrete mucus & digestive enzymes.
• Ex, plant cells secrete carbs to build strong cell walls.

STEPS
1) secretory vesicles move through the cytosol & contact the plasma membrane
2) The vesicle membrane fuses with the plasma membrane, releasing the contents of the vesicle outside of the cell
3) rmr the cytosol side of the lipid bilayer becomes the outer layer of the vesicle & the extracellular side of the lipid bilayer becomes the inner layer of the vesicle. (from video)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ztyiciTDsc

Question 103

Endocytosis takes place in most eukaryotic cells by one of three distinct but related pathways (there r 3 types of endocytosis). List them.

Answer 103

• pinocytosis
• receptor-mediated endocytosis
• Phagocytosis

Question 104

Pinocytosis

Answer 104

• simplest of the 3 endocytosis pathways.
• it’s the bulk-phase endocytosis aka pinocytosis, meaning “cell drinking”
• extracellular water is taken in, along with any molecules that happen to be in solution in the water
• No binding by surface receptors takes place

Question 105

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

Answer 105

• the molecules to be taken in are bound to the outer cell surface by receptor proteins –> The receptors bind to only certain molecule, usually proteins or molecules carried by proteins.
• After binding, the receptors collect into a pit coated with a network of proteins on the cytosol side, called clathrin
• The coated pit then breaks free of the membrane to form a vesicle
• In cytosol, the vesicle loses its clathrin coating & may fuse with a lysosome. –> Lysosome enzymes then digest the cargo, breaking it down into molecules that r useful to the cell.

Question 106

Phagocytosis

Answer 106

• the pathway in which cells engulf bacteria, parts of dead cells, viruses, or other foreign particles.
• most commonly performed by a macrophage, a type of white blood cell that helps to fight infection by engulfing invading organisms or particles.