Chapter 2 Flashcards
Three other types of evidence for behaviour:
- Your Experience
- Your intuition
- An authority
3 elements of empiricism:
- Comes from observation and experimentaion
- Reproducable
- Verifiable
Element of Empircism
Comes from observation and experimentation
Empiricists say we need to gather data from sensory experiences, and observations
Element of empircism
Reproducibility
Empirical evidence should be reproducible by different observers under similair conditions
element of empircism
Verification
empirical claims must sbe testable and subject to verification or falsification through futher observation and expriements
Hindsight understanding
proposing an explanation to a behaivour after seeing it (“i knew it all along moment”)
3 elements leading to hindsight understanding:
- Cognitive
- Meta-Cognitive
- Motivational
Hindsight understanding
Cognitive element
Things like forgetting past prediction
Hindsight Understandiing
Metacognitive Element
when you undrestand why something happend, you can see why it happened
Hindsight Bias
Motivational
Believing an outcome was innevitable
The Scientific Method Definition
Systematic procedure used to ahieve goal of description, prediction, and explanation
Normal Distribution
-Symmetrical
-Central Peak
-Tails off to both ends
Scientific Method Steps
- Identify a Question - What we want to learn?
- Form a Hypothesis - What we predict?
- Test Hypothesis by doing reserach
- Analyze Data - What we think?
- Build a body of knowledge - Build Theory
Negatively Skewed
Skewed to the left
Mode > Median > Mean
Positively Skewed
Skewed to the right
Mean > Median > Mode
How do you know if something is positively or negatively skewed?
if the tail is to the right then it is positively skewed. If the tail is to the left then it is negatively skewed.
Standard Deviation
describes the average difference between measurments
Range
value of largest measurment minus smallest measurment
Variability
How much measurments differ from one another
3 ways to build body of knowledge:
- Present at Conference
- Publish in peer-reviewed
- Promote work on social media
Key Features of Indegenous Systems
- Holistic Perspectives
- Spiritualty
- Ecological Context
(there are more)
Variable
Any characteristic that varies
Operational Defintion
defines varible in terms of specific prcedure used to measure it: ex how fast someones heart to say it is anxiety
Two things that make a good measurment:
- Reliability
- Validity
Realiability
Always produce the same score when measuring the same thing
Validity
must conceptually be related to the property of study
Descriptive Research
Seeks to explain how an individual behaves, esp in natural environment
3 types of descriptive research
- Case studies
- Naturalistic Observations
- Surveys
Self-Report measure
participants report on their own knowledge, beliefs, feelings
-a questionnaire or interview
Two issues with self-report
-Social Desirability Bias (desire to make good impression)
-Asking suggestive or leading questions
case study
descriptive research method that involves intenstive examination of “atypical” person
Naturalistic Observations
-Observers record observational behaivour
-Requires operational definiton
-Observers must be trained to consistently code their observations
Issues with measuring overt behaivour (2)
- Participants can change their behaivour when being observed
- Demand characteristics
Social Desirability Bias
Aspects of observational setting that make people behave as they think they should
Types of research (4)
-Descriptive
-Correlational
-Survey
-Observational
What is Naturalistic Observation
Observing people/animals in their natural environment
two advantages of naturalistic observations:
- Provides rich description of behaviour
- Can avoid demand characteristics (they do not know they are being watched)
Two limits to naturalistic observations
- Can not inform a Pearson that they are being observed
- Requires long period of observation to get a single measure of a desired behaviour
Survey research involves:
Asking participants questions through interviews or questionnaires
Population
the entire set of individuals about who we wish to draw a conclusion
Sample
a subset of individuals drawn from a population
A representative sample _____
reflects important ccharesteristcs of the population
To have a representative sample you have to use ________
Random Sampling
Surveys like descriptive research can not be used to _______-
draw conclusions about population
psychological tests
specialized tests designed by psychologists to measure particular variables
3 psychological test
- Neuropsychological
- Personality
- Intelligence
Correlational Research 3 aspects:
- Measure X
- Measure Y
- See if X is related to Y
Correlation does not equal _______
causation
You can only make casual inference if you have a ______
experiment
Biderecitonality problem
Does X cause Y or does Y cause X
Third variable problem
two variables only have a correlation to each other because they are confounded by a third variable they are causally related to
r describes
relation between two variables
explain r
if positive then positive relation, the higher the number (take the absolute value) the stronger the relationship
r = 0 means
there is no relationship
3 advantages of correlational research
- shows strength or present relationships
- can be used to make predesictionsd about variables
- identifies ‘real-world’ associations
2 disadvantages of correlational research
- can not assume cause-effect relationship
- Third-variable problem
3 steps or experimental research:
- Manipulation of one variable
- Measure changes in another variable
3.Controlling variables
Variable:
A property whose value can change across individuals and over time
Independent Variable:
The variable that is manipulated in an experiment
Dependant Variable:
The variable that is measured in a study
Exxpiremental variation:
Researchers systematically varying what participants are exposed to (Independent variable) using random assignment to minimize bias
Comparative Baseline:
The experimental group receives the treatment, while the control group experiences all other aspects equally except the treatment
Isolating Effects:
Comparing experimental and control groups allows researcher to isolate the effects of IV, establishing a baseline for what naturally occurs (control) versus what changes with the treatment (experimental)
Two types of research expirements:
-Between Groups/Between Subjects
-Repeated measures (within subjects)
Between Groups/Between Subjects design
each group in the experiment is composed of a different set of participants (first BSR experiment)
Repeated measures (within subjects design)
Each participant is exposed to all the conditions of an independent variable (second BSR experiment)
Purpose of ethical standards
to protect the welfare off both humans and animals in psychological research
5 points of ethics
- Psychologist must protect and promote the welfare of participants
- Psychologists must avoid doing harm to participants
- Psychologists should not carry out studies unless the benefit outweighs the loss
- Psychologists must provide informed consent, and debriefing
- Should ensure privacy and confidentiality
When was the Tuskegee Syphilis Study conducted?
between 1932 - 1972
Purpose of Tuskegee Syphilis Study
To observe the natural history of untreated syphilis
How was the Tuskegee Syphilis study deceitful?
because African-American men were told they were reaching free healthcare. They were not informed they they were being infected with syphilis
Vivisections
live experiments on animals
What did Rene Descartes question about animal ethics?
he asked if it is torture, if it impacts studies
What does the Animal Ethics slide have?
The dates on events related to animal ethics
APA’s code for working with animal subjects (4)
- Must be trained in research methods, the care of laboratory animals
- Appropriate anesthesia and pain management
- Minimize discomfort, infection, illness, pain
- Procedures causing discomfort and pain only used when study shows potential for benefit
Who contributed to the Three R’s
Russel and Burch
What do the three R’s serves as
Guiding principles for ethical testing
What are the 3 R’s
- Replacement
- Reduction
- Refinement
Replacement
methods which avoid or replace the use of animals in research
Reduction
use of methods that enable researchers to obtain comparable levels of information from fewer animals, or to obtain more information from the same number of animals.
Refinement
use of methods that alleviate or minimize potential pain, suffering or distress, and enhance animal welfare for the animals used.
