Chapter 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Who became the first health psychologist, in a sense?
A
> In a sense, Charles Darwin (1872) became the first health psychologist when he suggested that emotional reactions such as fear and anger are the product of evolution and have widespread effects on behaviour and the body
2
Q
How does the human circulatory system seem relatively simple?
A
> because it is similar to closed-loop arrangements, such as a heating system, that circulate water.
3
Q
Pressure in the cardiovascular system is higher and lower in different states. Describe and name them.
s + d
A
> Pressure in the system is higher after the heart beats = the systolic phase of the heart
> Lower in the resting phase = the diastolic phase)
- but in general flow is uninterrupted.
4
Q
The activity associated with the contraction of the two atria is reflected as what type of wave?
A
> as the P-wave in the electrical signature of the heart. (normal rhythm)
5
Q
Contraction of the more powerful ventricles is reflected by what type of wave?
A
the R-wave (large spikes)
6
Q
What causes death of the heart muscles?
A
> myocardial infarction
7
Q
Death of heart muscle cells as the result of a myocardial infarction can produce various forms of what? What does this do to the cells?
A
> can cause various forms of fibrillation
> this may cause the remaining cells to contract in an uncoordinated fashion, decreasing the efficiency of the pump
8
Q
What is fibrillation?
A
> an interuption of the smooth flow of electrical activity across the heart.
9
Q
What does defibrillation involve?
A
> the use of a large shock in the hope of resetting the electrical profile of the heart.
10
Q
In general, myocardial infarctions are the result of what?
A
> the process of atherosclerosis. That is, a
number of stimuli such as cigarette smoke and high blood pressure can damage the interior lining of the arteries, the endothelium.
11
Q
What does atherosclerosis lead to?
A
> an excessive repair process involving inflammation, clotting, cholesterol buildup, and eventually plaques that extend into the artery and reduce blood flow
12
Q
Does atherosclerosis only occur in the heart?
A
NO. Atherosclerosis can occur in any artery, but those that supply the heart muscle are especially important
13
Q
Where is pain often experienced in the body? (In what areas)
A
> pain is often experienced in areas of the body that have a reduction in blood flow.
14
Q
In the case of reduced blood flow to the heart, how is pain experienced there?
A
> pain is often experienced in the form of angina, a pain or tightness in the chest or shoulder.
15
Q
Angina, an important sign, although not universal is a warning sign for what?
A
> of risk for myocardial infarction and fibrillation.
16
Q
The human body is often described humorously as what?
A
> a doughnut— because its exterior surface includes an interior passage
17
Q
How does digestion transform food?
A
> Digestion transforms food using both mechanical and chemical processes to a form where nutrients can be easily absorbed.
18
Q
What type of process is digestion?
A
Active process
19
Q
How is the digestion process monitored?
A
> this active process is monitored locally by the brain.
20
Q
The involvement of muscle activity throughout the process of digestion suggests what?
A
> suggests possible means of disruption and a mechanism for functional gastrointestinal disorders that some experience during stress.
> in a positive example, saliva is produced in anticipation of a tasty treat!
21
Q
How is the respiratory system like the digestive system?
A
> the respiratory system is also involved in bringing materials from the environment to cells deep within the body
22
Q
What is the main bodily process that oxygen is required for?
A
> Oxygen is required to convert glucose to the important molecule adenosine triphosphate, which, in turn, powers the body’s chemical reactions.
23
Q
Oxygen is required to convert glucose to the important molecule - ATP. What is the waste product in this process? Why is this important to note?
A
> Carbon dioxide is a waste product of this process.
24
Q
What is the primary organ of the respiratory system?
A
> The lungs.
25
How is the respiratory system similar to the cardiovascular system?
> Similar to the cardio-vascular system, air passes through progressively narrower passages in the lungs to allow efficient extraction of oxygen and uptake of carbon dioxide.
26
Although the lungs require the activity of nearby muscles to move air in and out, the lungs are not simply passive bags of air. What two components affect this process?
> the brain + smooth muscle cells surrounding bronchioles also control airflow.
27
The Degree of bronchodilation or constriction can be influenced by what?
> both the central nervous system and local processes
28
The gastrointestinal and respiratory systems are involved in what two processes?
> in both the intake of substances into the body and the removal of waste products - i.e., carbon dioxide.
29
What is the main component of the renal/urinary system?
> The kidneys
> Filters the blood.
30
Aside from waste removal, what else does the renal/urinary system do?
> blood pressure regulation.
31
What are the kidneys responsible for?
> they remove waste products from the blood through concentrate urine
> control the retention and excretion of electrolytes
> blood pressure control
32
What is the function of the immune system?
> The immune system protects the body from infection.
33
What is the primary component of the immune system?
> individual leukocytes cells that circulate in the bloodstream
34
What are fixed components of the immune system?
> lymph vessels
> lymph nodes
> the thymus
> the spleen.
35
Circulating leukocytes (i.e., white blood cells) develop from what? Can they develop into different types?
> from stem cells located in bone marrow.
> they have the potential to develop into many different kinds of blood cells
36
What are the two types of leukocytes?
> myeloid and lymphoid types.
37
What is the classic sign of infection?
Inflammation
38
What are some inflammatory mediators?
> Cytokines
> histamine dilate
39
What do inflammatory mediators do?
> increase the permeability of blood vessels in the area, facilitating the influx of other immune cells attracted to the mediators causing the area to baloon out, tighten connections between the cells and create a physical barrier around the infection.
40
What is a sign that the immune system is working?
> Red, puffy areas
41
Cells derived from the myeloid line as well as some from the lymphoid line (natural killer cells) provide what?
> provide what is described variously as natural, innate, or “non-specific” immunity.
> not immune to novel threats!
42
“Specific” immune cells derived from the lymphoid line are what?
> more flexible in that they can be programmed to respond to protein patterns on new threats.
43
When is immunity ineffective?
> during one’s first encounter with the threat.
44
Which immune cells are programmed to attack and then remember a virus? What results as of this cell?
> lymphocytes are programmed to attack and remember the virus, thus providing more-or-less lifelong immunity after the initial infection.
45
Different types of lymphocytes have complementary functions and are classified as what type of cells? How are they subdivided and with what prefix are they subdivided with?
> Type T or B cells - and subdivided into groups with the prefix CD based on where the cells mature.
46
Cytotoxic T cells (CD8+
cells) are similar to what type of cells?
> similar to neutrophils and macrophages in the sense that they directly attack dangerous cells, especially those infected with a virus.
47
What do helper T cells (CD4+ cells) do?
> stimulate cytotoxic T cells and macrophages by releasing cytokines.
> groundbreaking with aids.
48
B-lymphocytes play what kind of role in the immune system?
> B-lymphocytes play a key “humoral” support role, releasing antibodies that bind to invaders and attract immune cells.
49
In detection, what are the two stimuli that the immune system responds to (the two types of innocuous stimuli)
> the system reacts to innocuous external and internal stimuli
50
What are allergies caused by?
> unnecessary responses to innocuous external stimuli
51
Does the immune system attack healthy cells? If so, describe some conditions that are a result of this?
> The immune system can also attack healthy internal cells.
> Autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 dia-betes, and lupus
52
Because the immune system can attack healthy cells, there are mechanisms to dampen as well as stimulate immune activity- what controls this?
> involves the central nervous system control mediated by actions of the peripheral nervous system and hormones.
53
The human central nervous system can exert incredible control over physiology and behaviour via what two bodily components?
> the peripheral nervous system and the endocrine system.
54
Physiological activity is also adjusted according to internal as well as external sensory information. What are the two fibers associated with this process?
> “efferent” fibres that transmit orders from the brain to muscles, the periph-eral nervous system includes “afferent” fibres that transmit information from receptors sensitive to pressure, temperature, chemicals, and pain to the brain.
55
What is the baroreflex is a simple example of?
> the continuous back-and-forth of information about the external and internal environment to the brain and adjustment of body function
56
What does the peripheral nervous system allow the brain to do?
> allows the brain to make quick adjustments of body function.
57
Neurons (i.e., nerve cells) of the peripheral nervous system are located where?
> Outside the CNS.
58
What are components of the CNS?
> Brain and spinal cord.
59
Where are the fibers of the PNS located, and where do they stop?
> Fibres of the peripheral nervous system exit in bundles (nerves) from the brain stem or from the spinal cord between spinal vertebrae.
> either directly or in clusters of ganglia.
60
The peripheral nervous system has two subsystems- what are they called?
> the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
61
What kind of cells make up the somatic nervous system?
> voluntary muscle cells.
62
Why are somatic cells less important in respect to major illness and disease?
> They do not innervate organs such as the heart and the lungs, and therefore they are less important in terms of the major causes of illness
63
What kind of neurons does the ANS have?
> the autonomic nervous system (ANS) consists of neurons that exit the brain stem or spinal cord, synapse with other ANS neurons, and proceed to cardiac muscle or smooth muscle cells that influ-ence activity in different organs.
64
Muscle activity influenced by the ANS is often referred to as what? (but- what should be kept in mind about this statement)
> “in-voluntary” since it occurs continuously without conscious thought
> On the other hand, the word “involuntary” is somewhat inaccurate since it is possible to develop some control over processes such as heart rate
65
the ongoing nature of muscle tension means that ANS effects are revealed by what?
> increases and decreases in activity, such as increased or decreased heart rate, rather than the presence or absence of activity.
66
What is the ANS similar to? why is it similar to that?
> automobiles
> Another similarity to automobiles
is the fact that the ANS is subdivided into two relatively independent parts, similar to acceleration and brak-ing systems
67
What are the two systems of the ANS and what do they do?
> he sympathetic nervous system (SNS) stimulates smooth muscle ac-tivity
> whereas the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) usually inhibits activity.
68
What are the neurons of the PNS?
> “pre-ganglionic” + post-ganglionic neurons
> Acetylcholine is used as the neurotransmitter at the junctions
69
The SNS is sometimes called the thoracolumbar system- Why?
> since these fibres exit the spinal cord in the central thoracic and lumbar regions.
70
In comparison to the PNS, what do the similar neurons do?
> do not travel far in pre, are longer in post,
> in comparison, SNS neurons, norepinephrine is used as the neurotransmitter at the junctions.
71
Compared to the SNS, what is the activity of the PNS?
> SNS is slower and less precisely targeted
than the PNS
> PNS activity is generally quicker and more specific than SNS activity.
> greater opportunity for sympathetic activity to spread and linger (SNS)
72
What are hormones similar to? Although similar, how do they differentiate?
> Hormones are similar and in some cases identical to neurotransmitters
> However, since they are released into the bloodstream they can influence physiological activity longer.
73
The effects of hormones complement and extend what activity? What hormones is this especially true for?
> the effects of hormones complement and extend PNS activity
> hormones released from the central portion of the adrenal glands, the adrenal medulla
74
What hormones are released by the adrenal medulla and how is it stimulated?
> release epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream, reinforcing and maintaining SNS activity.
75
What are most other hormones controlled by (separate from the adrenal medulla)
> Most other hormones are controlled by the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, often referred to as the “master gland”
76
Neurons connecting the hypothalamus to the posterior portion of the pituitary gland control release of hormones such as ?
> antidiuretic hormone, which influences water retention by the kidneys and blood pressure, and oxytocin.
77
Taylor et al. (2006) have suggested that oxytocin is a key component of what?
> a motivational system (“tend and befriend”) promoting social engagement to address collective needs, including safety and protection.
78
Compared to the posterior pituitary, what does the anterior pituitary do and how does it function?
> the anterior pituitary releases a wider array of hormones than the posterior pituitary and functions somewhat differently.
79
The primary function of hormones released from the anterior pituitary is to:
> stimulate the release of hormones from more distant glands.
80
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is especially important for what?
> vis-à-vis psycho-logical influences on body systems and the development of illness.
81
What do mineralocorticoids do?
> (e.g., aldosterone) affect mineral balance (e.g., sodium) and often reinforce the effects of stress on variables such as blood pressure.
82
What do Glucocorticoids do?
> (e.g., cortisol) free up glucose and other energy resources during times of stress.
> Glucocorticoids also influence inflammation and other aspects of immune system activity (good or bad).
83
The brain strives to what?
> maximize the efficiency of body function and adjust to the environment.
84
In the early 1900s, the physiologist Walter Cannon noted what about bodily responses? Overall, what did he argue?
> many common features of responses to strong, challenging stimuli, including stimuli primarily psychological in nature.
> he argued that we possess a broad pattern of response to threat that he called the “fight-or-flight response pattern.”
> Cannon believed that the extensive connections of the sympathetic nervous system allow the brain to prepare the body for a potentially life-threatening situation.
85
What is SNS activity during a fight or flight response?
> SNS activity during a fight-or-flight response increases heart rate to facilitate delivery of nutrients to the muscles.
> It also constricts blood vessels in the skin and gastrointestinal system, though SNS activity dilates vessels supplying large muscles in the arms and legs
86
What phenomenon was Cannon interested in?
> he was interested in a phenomenon he called “voodoo death,” where someone died after being “cursed” by a religious leader
> Cannon viewed voodoo death as essentially the flip side of the placebo effect—a powerful effect of expectation on health. However, in this case, the expectation was death, leading to intense fear and a self-fulfilling prophecy of “death from fear”
> accentuated by withdrawal of all social support and acceptance of the victim’s fate by others
87
The SNS produces what a pattern that is designed to do what?
> a pattern of peripheral physiological activity that prepares the body for vigorous physical action.
88
What does SNS activity inhibit?
> inhibits smooth muscle contraction in the gastrointestinal system (though this may disrupt digestion) and the bronchioles of the lungs (to allow greater intake of oxygen).
89
interest in the topic of stress skyrocketed when? Who or what was it because of?
> after World War II.
> To a large degree, this was due to the physician and researcher Hans Selye.
90
Similar to Cannon, Selye believed what? What was his focus?
> believed that a wide range of stimuli can elicit a pattern of physiological activity—the stress response—that is problematic in modern life.
> His focus on the effects of stress on hormonal activity, particularly the adrenal hormone cortisol.
> As a physician, he was also more focused on how stress contributed to disease and was noted for his work linking stress, cortisol, and ulcer forma-tion in rats.
91
What is Selye’s greatest contribution?
> popularize the idea of stress in the scientific community and the general public.
> argued that stress is a daily occurrence
92
What did cannon believe was the key feature of the voodoo death?
> that strong sympathetically mediated blood vessel constriction was the key feature of the process.
> Reports of looking extremely pale and “white as a sheet” were common.
93
Although Cannon and Selye emphasized the idea of a broad, generic stress response, subsequent research revealed what?
> interesting differences as well as similarities in reactions to many strong stimuli, including emotional stimuli
94
What bodily processes do anger-inducing situations elicit and which do fear-inducing. situations elicit? Why does this occur?
> anger-inducing situations = elicit sympathetically mediated blood vessel constriction
> fear-inducing situations = vasodilation
95
Emotions are the immediate stimulus for what reaction?
> stress reactions
96
Historically, what was viewed as the prototypic stress-related illness?
> gastrointestinal ulcers
97
What experiment lead people to believe that gastrointestinal ulcers were a prototypic stress-related illness?
> The “executive monkey” experiment (Brady, Porter, Conrad, & Mason, 1958) was one of the most widely cited studies in psychology and a staple of introductory psychology textbooks for decades
> In this study, monkeys trained to avoid the delivery of electric shocks by pressing a bar were much more likely to develop ulcers compared to control monkeys who were placed in the same environment and received the same number of shocks but were not given this “responsibility."
> To save time during initial training, monkeys who learned the desired behaviour quickly were non-randomly assigned to be executives! The other monkeys were assigned to be the controls. As a result, ulcer formation in the executives may have been due to pre-existing differences in activity, fearfulness, or sensitivity to pain.
98
What experiment proved that ulcers were stress related?
> Weiss (Weiss, Pohorecky, Salman, & Gruenthal, 1976) conducted a well-known series of more tightly conducted studies with rats and found that animals placed in the more helpless situation of receiving electric shocks that they were unable to control were more susceptible to ulcers
99
Another interesting finding from Weiss’s experiments (Weiss et al., 1976) was that...
> that rats exhibiting signs of aggression towards another rat when shocked were significantly less likely to develop lesions, even if this did nothing to terminate the shocks
100
However, the field took another unexpected turn in the 1980s in the context of human re-search on ulcers. Two Australian researchers, Barry Marshall and Robin Warren, discovered what?
> that a bacterium, Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), was present in many ulcer patients and that antibiotic treatment often produced remarkably beneficent effects.
> however, this is not always the case.
101
An interesting study found that stomach ulcers increased significantly following what event? What about a psychological component?
> following the Hanshin-Awaji earthquake of January 1995 in Japan, especially among those most personally affected and less able to rebuild (Aoyama et al., 1998).
> Another large population-based study found an association between personality dis-orders and stomach ulcers
102
Levenstein (2000) developed a model that integrates influences of infection, stress, and lifestyle factors such as smoking and alcohol use on ulcer formation. What was the idea behind this?
> The idea that stress may contribute to ulcer forma-tion by reducing immune activity is consistent with the growing area of psychoneuroimmunol-ogy.
> It is also consistent with the role of depression, which is known to have a particularly strong effect on cortisol release.
103
Vasovagal reactions are caused by what? What have they been deemed?
> a decrease in blood flow to the brain in the absence of other illness.
> As a result, vasovagal reactions are more serious than the comic depictions- In fact, a vasovagal reaction is probably the clearest, most dramatic example of stress-related illness.
104
Similar to some early views on the development of stress-related ulcers, vasovagal syncope was first thought to be the result of what?
> a stress-related parasympathetic rebound—essentially a side effect of “relief.”
105
Ost (1992) found that what percent of people which what phobia have had a vasovagal reaction?
> Ost (1992) found that 70 per cent of people with blood phobias had fainted at least once during their lives. Vasovagal reactions seem to be related to the anticipation of physical harm.
106
The vasovagal reaction is virtually identical to the physiological response to what?
> severe actual blood loss.
> standing for an extended period of time can actually also envoke the reaction.
107
Diehl (2005) proposed that hemorrhage-related fainting developed as a result of?
> an active, adaptive
response to severe injury.
108
What has been deemed the flipside to a vasovagal reaction? What is the most obvious different?
> hypertension is the flip side of a vasovagal reaction. The most obvious dif-ference is that hypertension is defined by high rather than low blood pressure. It is also sus-tained across the day rather than acute.
109
The less blood pressure goes down at night, the greater the likelihood of what?
Stroke or heart disease.
110
The psychological profile of hypertension is also quite different from vasovagal reac-tions and ulcers. What does this mean?
> Vasovagal reactions and ulcers are typically related to uncontrollable stress
> Vasovagal reactions are most
likely to occur in situations involving short-term uncontrollable stress that may lead to acute physical injury or blood loss,
> whereas ulcers are more likely to occur in situations involving long-term uncontrollable stress, hopelessness, and depression.
111
Crowding is positively associated with hypertension in rats. Is the same true for humans?
> Considerable research in humans also suggests that conditions involving irritation,
struggle, conflict, and crowding are linked to risk for hypertension and may begin to in-fluence blood pressure early in life.
112
Briefly, what are the studies of hypertension?
1) Regecova and Kellerova (1995) found that kindergarten children whose schools were located in neighbourhoods with higher levels of traffic noise had higher blood pressure than children who went to school in quieter neighbourhoods.
2) A recent review showed that chronic exposure to noise is signifi-cantly related to blood pressure elevation and risk for hypertension (van Kempen & Babisch, 2012), though the effect is seen mainly in men and those who are more annoyed by noise.
3) Tomfohr, Cooper, Mills, Nelesen, and Dimsdale (2010) found that African Americans who experience more racial discrimination on an everyday basis had smaller decreases in blood pres-sure at night, possibly as a result of rumination about injustice that maintains anger
113
The mechanisms of stress-induced hypertension are still under study, but one reason for the involvement of anger may be because:
> it often produces strong increases in both cardiac output and blood vessel constriction placing extra stress on the endothelium.
114
Cortisol also has intriguing effects on central nervous system function, specifically what?
> Memory
> Animal studies indicate that cortisol may even have toxic effects on brain cells in certain areas
115
Cannon’s description of the autonomic nervous system set the stage for early theories of stress-related problems such as:
> high blood pressure, asthma, and ulcers.
116
Who coined the term psychoneuroimmunology?
Years later, Ader coined the term “psychoneuroimmunology” and propelled the field by dem-onstrating that aspects of immune system function can be influenced by classical conditioning
117
What is usually the "culprit" for coronary heart disease?
> cortisol.
118
What did Hans Seyle emphasize about cortisol?
> he emphasized the role of cortisol release in the stress response (which may have explained Ishigami’s blood glu-cose finding).
> He was also aware of its anti-inflammatory properties (affects inflammation)
119
Years later, Ader coined the term ___ that did what?
> Ader coined the term “psychoneuroimmunology” and propelled the field by dem-onstrating that aspects of immune system function can be influenced by classical conditioning
120
Emerging evidence suggests
that stress can influence the progression of more serious diseases such as what?
> as AIDS and cancer. (aids in men, cervical caner in women)
121
Andersen et al. (2008) found that women with breast cancer who participated in stress-reduction groups after surgery were significantly less likely to experience what?
> a recurrence and lived longer than women with only medical treatment.
122
In addition to evidence of decreased immune function, investigators have observed what other effects in "high stressed groups"
> higher cytokine levels, inflammation, and greater risk for autoimmune disease in some stressed groups.
123
What are the three ways that the SNS affects the immune system?
(1) most immune cells have receptors for norepinephrine;
(2) SNS fibres innervate organs like the lymph nodes and thymus where many immune cells congregate; and
(3) SNS activity can stimulate certain aspects of immune function
124
In sum, life stress can both increase and decrease immune function, depending in part on the length of the stressful situation. What does this mean for specific lengths?
> Brief stressors appear to produce an adaptive, sympathetic-ally mediated increase in immune function
> On the other hand, stressors of longer duration can lead to a cortisol-related reduction in immune activity.
125
Why? Unfortunately, psychological and behavioural influences on health can convey the notion of what?
> blame
> There is a long, sad history of illness being viewed as the “wages of sin.” In fact, much of modern medicine was built on the idea of removing blame for illness by emphasizing biological causes, leading to more char-itable attitudes about the sick
