Chapter 2 Flashcards
Facts
Observable realities established using evidence collected through empirical research
Opinions
Personal judgements that may or may not be accurate
Deductive Reasoning
Ideas are tested in the real world
Begins with a hypothesis that is used to reach logical conclusions about the real world (if the hypothesis is correct then the conclusion is also correct)
If hypothesis is incorrect conclusion can be logical but also incorrect
Used to test hypotheses
Inductive Reasoning
Real-world observations lead to new ideas
Uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations
Conclusions may or may not be correct regardless of the observations they are based on
Used to formulate theories
Theory
Well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena
Hypothesis
Testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct
Bridges gap between theory and real world
Falsifiability
Capability of being shown to be incorrect
Case Study
Also known as clinical study
Observational research focused on one or a few individuals
Gather a wealth of information but low generalizability
Naturalistic Observation
Observing behaviour in its natural setting
High external validity / ecological validity / realism
Generalizing
The ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to the larger population is a whole
Observer Bias
Skewing observations to fit the research goals/expectations
Inter-rater Reliability
Also known as inter-observer reliability
Assessment of the consistency of observations by different researchers
Surveys
Lists of questions to be answered by research participants
Sacrifices depth of information for large sample size and higher generalizability
Sample
Subset of individuals selected from a population
Population
Overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in
Archival Research
Using existing records to answer various research questions
Longitudinal Research
Research design where data is collected repeatedly over a long period of time
Cross-sectional Research
Researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time
Attrition Rate
Reduction in the number of research participants due to drop outs
Correlation
A relationship between two or more variables (does not imply cause and effect)
Correlation Coefficient
A number that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables
Confounding Variable
Unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest
Cause and Effect Relationship
Changes in one variable cause changes in the other variable
Can be determined only using an experimental study
Illusory Correlations
False correlations
When people believe that a relationship exists between two variables when it does not
Confirmation Bias
Seeking out evidence to confirm our beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence
Causes illusory correlations
Experimental Group
The group which gets the experimental manipulation
Control Group
The group that does not get the experimental manipulation
Operational Definition
A description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependant variables and manipulate the independent variables
Experimenter Bias
The possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of a study
Single-blind Study
Participants are unaware which group they are in while experimenters know which participants are in each group
Double-blind Study
Both the participants and researchers are blind to group assignments
Placebo Effect
When people’s expectations/beliefs influence their experience in a certain situation
Independent Variable
The variable controlled/manipulated by the experimenter
Dependent Variable
The variable measured by the experimenter to see the effects of the independent variable
Random Sample
Subset of a larger population in which every member of the population had an equal chance of being selected
Random Assignment
All participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group
Reduces systematic differences between the groups
Statistical Analysis
Used to determine if there is a meaningful difference between the experimental and control groups (if the observed difference is simply due to random chance)
Reliability
The ability to consistently produce a given result
Internal Consistency
The degree to which different items on a survey that measure the same thing correlate with one another
Test-retest Reliability
The degree to which the outcomes of a particular measure remain consistent over multiple administrations
Validity
The extent to which a given tool accurately measures what it is supposed to measure
Validity implies reliability (but the reverse is not always true)
IRB
Institutional Review Board
Committee whose purpose is to review proposals for research that involve human participation
Informed Consent
The process of informing a research participant about what to expect during an experiment, any risks involved and implication of the research before obtaining consent
Deception
Purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment
Deception cannot be harmful
When deception is used participants must be fully debriefed after the experiment is over
Quasi-experiment
Experiment where researchers cannot assign participants to groups because they are predetermined (e.g. sex)
IACUC
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee
Committee whose purpose is to review proposals for research that involve non-human animal participation
