Chapter 2

Question 1

Ethical Systems are a set of principles that …?

Answer 1

A structured set of principles that defines what is moral

Question 2

The Ethics of Virtue asks the question?

Answer 2

The ethics of virtue asks the question, “What is a good person?”

It is an ethical system that bases ethics largely upon character and the possession of virtues.

Question 3

Socrates and Plato identified four virtues:

Answer 3

wisdom, fortitude, temperance, and justice.

Question 4

In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle answered the question ?

Answer 4

“what is a good person?”

He believed that to be good; one must do good.

Question 5

Eudaimonia (what is it and who created it?)

Answer 5

Aristotle believed that “eudaimonia” was the goal of life

Eudaimonia can be defined as the way to live a good life and achieve happiness

Question 6

Aristotle and the Principle of the Golden Mean

Answer 6

The “principle of the Golden Mean” is that virtue is always the median between two extremes of character.

E.g. courage is the balance between cowardice and foolhardiness

Question 7

Good temper is the balance between what?

Answer 7

the balance between being quick to anger and not showing anger when warranted.

Question 8

The Ethics of Virtue assumes a person will make

Answer 8

Basically assumes a good person will make a good decision.

They are little help for people facing dilemmas.

Question 9

Natural Law are principles of … ?

Answer 9

The idea that principles of morals and rights are inherent in nature and not human-made;

Such laws are discovered by reason but exist apart from humankind.

Question 10

Natural Law (1 of 2) (more detailed)

Answer 10

A universal set of rights and wrongs is similar to many religious beliefs, but there is no reference to a specific supernatural figure.

Morality is part of the natural order of the universe and is the same across cultures and times.

The pursuit of knowledge recognized as a natural inclination of humans

“Natural rights” are the rights that everyone has purely by virtue of being alive

Question 11

Flaws of Natural Law

Answer 11

While natural law defines good as what is natural, it is difficult to identify what is consistent with natural inclinations of humankind and what is against it

Question 12

what laws are against natural law?

Answer 12

Certain crimes such as murder are against natural law.

Question 13

Flaws of Natural Law (more detailed)

Answer 13

Historically natural law has been used to restrict the lives and liberties of others

It has been used to support racial superiority, justify slavery, and the “natural” role of women as only child-bearers.

It has also been used to oppose the rights of same-sex marriage and non-traditional relationships.

People in power traditionally claim to know what natural law is.

And use it to enforce and control the people

Question 14

Religion

Answer 14

Religious ethics includes Judeo-Christian ethics,
Buddhism, Confucianism, and Islam among others. They are based on religious beliefs of good and evil; what is good is that which is God’s will.

Question 15

Religion provides a basis for ethics because …?

Answer 15

These religions provide a basis of ethics because they offer explanations of how to live a “good life”.

they also address other philosophical issues such as “what is reality”

A religion must have a willful and rational God or ethical system

Question 16

The Golden Rule

Answer 16

Almost all major religions have some version of the ultimate ethical guidance of the Golden Rule.

Christianity: “do unto others as you would have them do unto you”

Question 17

Flaws of Religious Ethics

Answer 17

How can we trust authorities to tell us God’s direction, when we cannot hear from God itself?

Question 18

Judaism

Answer 18

Judaism is older than Christianity or Islam, and it uses the Torah as its foundational text.

The definition of what is good in Judaism comes from the Torah, the Talmud, and religious authorities.

Judaism’s definitions of goodness lie in virtues and religious faith.

Believers are exhorted to lead a religious life that includes helping the needy.

Question 19

Islam

Answer 19

Islam is one of the newest, yet largest religions.

Like Christianity, this religion recognizes one god, Allah. Jesus and other religious figures as prophets.

There is a concept called Inshallah, meaning: “if God wills it”, that is prevalent within Islam

There is also a recognition that if people choose evil, they do so freely.

Question 20

Buddhism

Answer 20

Siddhartha Guatama (Buddha) attained
enlightenment and preached to others how to do the same and achieve release from suffering.

He taught that good behavior is that which follows the “middle path” between asceticism and hedonistic pursuit of sensual pleasure.

Ethical conduct can be broken into right speech
(refraining from lies, slander, enmity, and rude speech)

Right action (abstaining from destroying life, stealing, and dishonest dealings, and helping others lead peaceful and honorable lives)

Question 21

Buddhism, Cont.

Answer 21

Right livelihood (abstaining from occupations that bring harm to others, such as arms dealing and killing animals)

To follow the “middle path” is to abide by these
guidelines.

Question 22

Confucianism

Answer 22

Confucianism taught a humanistic social philosophy that included central concepts such as “Ren.” Which is human virtue and humanity at its best, as well as the source of moral principles;
* Li: which is traditional order, ritual, or custom;
* Xiao: familial love; and
* Yi: which is rightness = one should do what is right because it is right

The key to a good life is practicing moderation.

Question 23

Hinduism

Answer 23

In Hinduism, the central concept of “karma” can be understood as consequence.

Specifically, what one does in one’s present life will determine what happens in your future.

The goal is to escape the eternal birth/rebirth cycle by living one’s life in a moral manner so that no bad karma will occur.

Question 24

Ethical Formalism (1 of 3)

Answer 24

Ethical formalism: ethical system espoused by Kant; the key to ethical formalism is that it focuses on duty.

It is concerned solely with the inherent nature of the at being judged.

It holds that the only thing truly good is a good will.

Question 25

Deontological ethical system

Answer 25

study of duty or moral obligation emphasizing the intent of the actor as the element of morality. Without regard to the
consequences of the acts

Question 26

Kant’s Categorical Imperative (Principles of Kant’s theory)

Answer 26

Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.

Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or that of any other, never simply as a means but always at the same time as an end: that the thing you do is what matters not the
outcome.

Act as if you were, through your maxims, a lawmaking member of a kingdom of ends. What does this mean??

Question 27

The Categorical Imperative

Answer 27

The concept that some things just must be, with no need for further justification, explanation, or
rationalization for why they exist.

That you should do your duty and act in a way you want everyone else to act.

Question 28

Utilitarianism (1 of 2)

Answer 28

Utilitarianism is a teleological ethical system: what is good is determined by the consequences of the action.

This is basically the opposite of the previous ethical formalism)

Even a bad act, if it results in good consequences, can be defined as good under a teleological system.

Question 29

Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)

Answer 29

a major proponent of
utilitarianism

He believed that the morality of an action should be determined by how much it contributes to the good of
the majority.

Bentham argued that human nature seeks to maximize pleasure and avoid pain, and that a moral system must be consistent with this natural fact.

Question 30

Utilitarianism (more detalied)

Answer 30

The utilitarianism doctrine asserts that we should always act to produce the greatest possible ratio of good to evil for everyone concerned.

If one can show that an action significantly contributes to the general good, then it is good.

In situations where one must decide between a good for an individual and a good for society, then society should prevail, despite the wrong being done to the individual.

This is because the utility or good derived from that action generally out-weighs the small amount of harm done to the individual.

Question 31

Act utilitarianism

Answer 31

the basic utility derived from an
action is alone examined.

Question 32

Rule utilitarianism:

Answer 32

one judges an action in reference
to the precedent it sets and the long-term utility of the rule set by that action.

Question 33

Flaws of Utilitarianism

Answer 33

Is it justified to punish one innocent person if it benefits society??

Question 34

Criticisms of Utilitarianism:

Answer 34

All pleasures or benefits are not of equal value.

Utilitarianism presumes that one can predict the consequences of actions.

There is little concern for individual rights in
utilitarianism.

Question 35

The Ethics of Care (1 of 2)

Answer 35

It defines good as meeting the needs of others and preserving and enriching relationships

Described as a feminine morality

Question 36

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778

Answer 36

argued that it is human’s natural impulses of compassion that are the basis of human action and that morality is based in emotion rather than rationality

Question 37

restorative justice

Answer 37

movement is consistent with the ethics of care.

Question 38

Peacemaking Justice

Answer 38

An ancient approach to justice that includes the
concepts of compassion and care, connectedness, and mindfulness

Question 39

Connectedness:

Answer 39

refers to the interrelationships we
all have with one another and all of us have with earth

Question 40

Caring:

Answer 40

refers to the concept that the “natural”
inclination of humans is to care for one another???

Question 41

. Mindfulness:

Answer 41

involves being aware of others and the
world in all personal decision making.

Question 42

Egoism (Psychological egoism)

Answer 42

refers to the belief that humans are naturally egoists and that it would be unnatural for them to be any other way

That all species have instincts for survival, and self-preservation and self interest are merely part of that instinct.

therefore, it is not only moral to be egoistic, but it is the only way we can be, and any other explanations of behavior are mere rationalizations.

Question 43

Psychological Egoism, Cont.

Answer 43

And that even if an act appears altruistic, such as giving to charity or helping someone simply provides psychic an emotional pleasure.

And that is why they do them, not for some other selfless reason.

Question 44

Enlightened egoism:

Answer 44

Each person’s objective is long-term welfare.

Rejected by most philosophers because it violates the basic tenets of an ethical system.

Once again, even seemingly selfless and altruistic acts are said to benefit the individual by ensuring reciprocal assistance.

And that even if someone appears to be doing something totally selflessly, it may be that they are just doing it for a reward in the possible afterlife.

Question 45

Egoism: Ethical System or Not?

Answer 45

Egoism postulates that what is good for one’s survival and personal happiness is moral.

Question 46

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

Answer 46

He is the “father” of free enterprise

And promoted a type of practical egoism

He argued individuals pursuing their own personal good would lead to entire nations prospering as well.

Capitalism is based on the premise that everyone pursuing their own self-interest will create a healthy economy:

workers will work harder and owners will compete to pay them and provide cheaper better goods because they must compete.

It is the foundation of American ethics

Question 47

Other Methods of Ethical Decision Making
(1 of 2) ( Imperative principle)

Answer 47

directs a decision maker to act
according to a specific, unbending rule.

It is the concept that all decisions should be made according to absolute rules

E.g. No drugs should ever be allowed; all immigrants are evil, etc

Question 48

other Methods of Ethical Decision Making
(1 of 2) (Utilitarian principle)

Answer 48

determines the ethics of conduct
by the good or bad consequences of the action.

It is the principle that all decisions should be made according to what is best for the greatest number

Question 49

Generalization principle

Answer 49

That all decisions should made assuming that the decision would be applied to everyone else in similar circumstances

it is based on: “What would happen if all similar
persons acted this way under similar circumstances?”

Question 50

The Front Page Test

Answer 50

The simplest test is the “front page test”

If your actions as an official were going to be put on the front page would you still do them?

Question 51

Should you put people in charge of investigating themselves?

Answer 51

Never put people in charge of investigating themselves

Question 52

Ethical Relativism

Answer 52

Moral systems are products of an individual or group.

If people believe different things are good and bad, how can you define what is good?

Question 53

Cultural Relativism

Answer 53

“Good” depends on the norms of each society. What is acceptable in one society might not be in another.

Who is to say which society is right?

Question 54

fatal flaw in relativism

Answer 54

However, FATAL FLAW in relativism is: Why should anyone obey their cultural norms since they may be right in another place or another time?

Question 55

Absolutism:

Answer 55

Idea that what is wrong is always wrong
and what is right is always right; e.g., you should never lie.

Question 56

Universalism:

Answer 56

If you want to do something, you should
be able to agree that everyone can do it.

Question 57

Principle of Forfeiture:

Answer 57

People who violate the rights
of others forfeit their own rights to protection and freedom

Question 58

Situational Ethics

Answer 58

Although there are a few universal truths, different
situations call for different responses.

Hinman terms this “moral pluralism

Question 59

Moral pluralism

Answer 59

is the concept that there are
fundamental truths that dictate different definitions of what is moral in different situations.

Question 60

Why is situational ethics different from relativism?

Answer 60

Different from relativism because it acknowledges the existence of absolute norms