Chapter 2 Flashcards
Anecdotal Evidence
Unreliable or informal evidence.
Goals of the Scientific Enterprise
Measurement, Understanding & Prediction, Application & Control
Steps in a Scientific Investigation
- Formulate a Testable Hypothesis,
- Select the Research Method and Design the Study,
- Collect the Data, Analyze the Data and Draw Conclusions,
- Report the Findings.
Direct Observation
Observers watch and record behaviour as objectively and precisely as possible.
Questionnaire
Participants are given a series of written questions designed to obtain information about attitudes, opinions, and specific aspects of their behaviour.
Interview
A face-to-face dialogue is conducted to obtain information about specific aspects of a subject’s behaviour.
Psychological Tests
Participants are given a standardized measure to obtain a sample of their behaviour. Tests are usually used to assess mental abilities or personality traits.
Physiological/neural recording
An instrument is used to monitor and record a specific physiological process in a subject. Examples include measures of blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tension, and brain activity.
Examination of archival records
The researcher analyzes existing institutional records (the archives), such as census, economic, medical, legal, educational, and business records
Peer review Process
Other researchers review your study to deem it worthy or not of entering the journal. This reduces the chance of publishing dumb findings
Cause & Effect Method
- Seeing if effects on one variable causes any change in the other variable.
- Psychologists rely upon this relationship more than any other.
Independent Variable
One that the examiner manipulates
Dependent Variable
One that is affected by the manipulation of the independent variable.
Experimental Group
Group that receives special treatment
Control Group
Group that does not receive the special treatment.
Extraneous Variable
Any variables other than the independent variable that will influence the dependent variable in the study.
Confounding of Variables
When two variables are linked in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects.
Basic Elements of an Experiment
- Random assignment
- Manipulation of independent variable
- Measurement of dependent variables.
Within subjects design
When an experiment uses the same group of people for the independent and dependent group condition.
Field Experiment
Experiment that takes place in a real life setting rather than a lab. This sacrifices control over extraneous variables for generalization.
Descriptive / correlative research methods
- Used when it would be impractical / unethical to do an actual psychical experiment.
- Methods include naturalistic observation, case studies, and surveys.
Naturalistic Observation
When a researcher carefully observes its subjects without intervening with them.
Reactivity
Occurs when the subject’s behaviour is altered by the presence of the researcher.
Case Study
An in-depth investigation of an individual participant or group of participants.
Survey
Researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of participants’ behaviour.
Descriptive Statistics
Used to organize and summarize data.
Median
The score that falls exactly in the centre of a distribution of scores.
The Mean
The arithmetic average of the scores in a distribution.
The Mode
The most frequent score in a distribution
Variability
How much the scores in a data set vary from each other and from the mean.
The Standard Deviation
How the scores in your sample cluster around the average
The Normal Distribution
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many human characteristics are dispersed in the population.
A Percentile Score
The percentage of people who score at or below a particular score.
Correlation
When two variables are related to each other.
The Correlation Coefficient
A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables.
Indicates…
1. The direction (positive or negative) of the relationship
- How strongly the two variables are related.
A Positive Correlation
Indicates that two variables co-vary in the same direction. Ex. People who do well in high school tend to do well in university, and those who perform poorly in high school tend to perform poorly in university.
A Negative Correlation
Indicates that two variables co-vary in the opposite direction.
Inferential Statistics
Used to interpret data and draw conclusions.
Statistical Significance
Exists when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low.
Replication
The repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated.
A Sample
The collection of participants selected for observation in an empirical study.
The Population
The much larger collection of animals or people (from which the sample is drawn).
Sampling Bias
When a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn.
Social Desirability Bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.
Response Set
A tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the questions. Ex. Some people tend to agree with nearly everything on a questionnaire.
The Halo Effect
When one’s overall evaluation of a person, object, or institution spills over to influence more specific ratings.
Experimenter Bias
When a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained.
Double Blind Procedure
A research strategy in which neither participants nor experimenters know which participants are in the experimental or control groups.
