Chapter 19 - Heart Flashcards

1
Q

The cardiovascular system is made of…

A

1.) The Heart
2.) Blood vessels

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2
Q

Perfusion

A

Delivery of blood per unit time per gram of tissue (mL/min/g)

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3
Q

Blood vessels

A

Conduits of the cardiovascular system that transport blood throughout the body

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4
Q

Arteries

A

Transport blood AWAY from the heart

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5
Q

Veins

A

Transport blood toward the heart

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6
Q

Capillaries

A

Serve as exchange sites, either between the blood and alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs or between blood and systematic cells

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7
Q

Atrium

A
  • A small chamber that receives blood from veins
  • Auricle –> a wrinkled, flaplike extension/appendage that increases atrial volume
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8
Q

Ventricle

A
  • A larger chamber that pumps blood into arteries
  • Makes up most of the volume of the heart
  • The area of the pump itself
  • Pump the same amount of blood on each side, just at different pressures
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9
Q

Both atria release…

A
  • Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)
  • Helps to lower blood pressure
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10
Q

Right atrium

A
  • Receives deoxygenated blood from the body
  • Thin-walled and small
    -3 veins empty into here –> SVC, IVC, coronary sinus
  • Posterior wall is smooth-walled
  • Anterior wall has ridges (pectinate muscles only in right atrium)
  • Posterior and anterior regions are separated by crista terminalis (only in right atrium because they’re attachment points for pectinate muscles- like a comb where crista terminalis is comb head)
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11
Q

Right ventricle

A
  • Pumps deoxygenated blood through pulmonary semilunar valves –> pulmonary trunk –> lungs
  • On most of anterior surface
  • Has trabeculae carneae, papillary muscles, and tendinous cords
  • Has moderator band (has to do with electrical conductivity)
  • Connects the interventricular septum to the anterior papillary muscle
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12
Q

Left atrium

A
  • Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
  • 4 pulmonary veins empty into left atrium
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13
Q

Left ventricle

A
  • Pumps oxygenated blood to the aortic semilunar valve –> aorta —> body
  • The myocardium is 3x thicker than in right because the ventricle works more to pump blood to body
  • On posteroinferior surface of the heart
  • Has papillary muscles, and tendinous cords
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14
Q

Superior vena cava (SVC)

A
  • Drains deoxygenated blood into the right atrium
  • Drains blood from the superior regions of the trunk and superior to the heart (head, neck, upper limbs, superior region of the trunk)
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15
Q

Inferior vena cava (IVC)

A
  • Drains deoxygenated blood into the right atrium
  • Drains blood from the inferior regions of the trunk, inferior to the heart, and lower limbs
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16
Q

Pulmonary trunk

A
  • Receives deoxygenated blood pumped from the right ventricle
  • Blood is to be transported to the lungs
  • Splits into the right and left pulmonary arteries
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17
Q

Pulmonary veins

A
  • Drains oxygenated blood into left atrium
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18
Q

Aorta

A
  • Recieves oxygenated blood pumped from left ventricle
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19
Q

Great vessels

A
  • Large arteries and veins connected directly with specific chambers of the heart
  • Helps blood be transported to and from chambers
  • Right side –> SVC/IVC, pulmonary trunk
  • Left side –> pulmonary veins, aorta
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20
Q

The right side valves are…

A
  • Right atrioventricular valve
  • Pulmonary semilunar valve
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21
Q

The left side valves are…

A
  • Left atrioventricular valve
  • Aortic semilunar valve
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22
Q

Right atrioventricular (AV) valve

A
  • Between right atrium and right ventricle
  • The tricuspid valve (has 3 flaps)
  • tRIcuspid, RIght
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23
Q

Pulmonary semilunar valve

A
  • Between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk
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24
Q

Left atrioventricular (AV) valve

A
  • Between the left atrium and left ventricle
  • The bicuspid/ mitral valve (has 2 flaps)
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25
Q

Aortic semilunar valve

A
  • Between left ventricle and aorta
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26
Q

Edema

A

Accumulation of fluid in the intestinal space surrounding the cells

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27
Q

Describe the location of the heart in general

A
  • In mediastinum between 2nd rib and 5th intercostal space
  • On superior surface of diaphragm
  • 2/3 of the heart is left to the midsternal line
  • Anterior to vertebral column
  • Posterior to the sternum
  • Close to the stomach –> stomach pain/issues may be mistaken with heart
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28
Q

What is the base and where is it in the body?

A
  • Base is the posterior surface of the heart
  • Leans toward right shoulder
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29
Q

What is the apex and where is it in the body?

A
  • The pointed, lower tip of the heart
  • Points toward left hip
  • Where stimulation of the ventricles begin
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30
Q

Apical impulse

A
  • Palpated between 5th and 6th ribs, just below left nipple
  • Closest point where the heart is coming towards thoracic cage –> apex
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31
Q

Where are the boarders of the heart, where are they pointing?

A
  • The right side/boarder is located more anteriorly
  • The left side/ boarder is located more posteriorly
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32
Q

What are the boarders of the superior mediastinum?

A

Superior –> Thoracic inlet
Anterior –> manubrium of the sternum
Inferior –> sternal angle
Posterior –> Bodies of T4-T5 vertebrae

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33
Q

What are the different parts of the inferior mediastinum and what do they contain?

A

Anterior mediastinum –> has lymph nodes, fat, and connective tissue
Medial mediastinum –> Mainly has the heart and pericardium
Posterior mediastinum –> Has esophagus, blood vessels, and trachea

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34
Q

What makes up the pericardium (the covering of the heart, a double-walled sac)

A

1.) Superficial fibrous pericardium
2.) Serous pericardium (parietal layer and visceral layer (epicardium)) –> Each layer is separated by a pericardial cavity filled with fluid –> serous fluid is produced by these layers and it’s an oily mixture

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35
Q

Superficial fibrous pericardium

A
  • The outermost covering
  • Doesn’t attach to the heart, but is attached superiorly to the bone of the atrial trunks (pulmonary + aorta) and inferiorly to the diaphragm
  • Dense irregular connective tissue
  • Protects, anchors to surrounding structures, and prevents overfilling
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36
Q

Parietal layer of serous pericardium

A
  • Lines internal surface of fibrous pericardium
  • Simple squamous epithelium and delicate areolar connective tissue
  • Attaches to inner surface of fibrous pericardium
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37
Q

Visceral layer (epicardium) of serous pericardium

A
  • Lines external surface of the heart
  • Simple squamous epithelium and areolar connective tissue
  • Most attaches directly to the heart
  • THickens as we age as it gets more adipose connective tissue
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38
Q

The pericardial sac is made of…

A
  • Fibrous pericardium
  • Parietal layer of serous pericardium
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39
Q

What are the 3 layers of the heart wall

A

1.) Epicardium (visceral pericardium)
2.) Myocardium
3.) Endocardium

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40
Q

Myocardium

A
  • The middle layer and the thickest one
  • Spiral bundles of contractile cardiac muscle cells
    Cardiac skeleton: crisscrossing, interlacing layer of connective tissue
    –> Anchors cardiac muscle fibers
    –> supports great vessels and valves
    –> Limits spread of action potentials to specific path
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41
Q

Endocardium

A
  • Epithelial layer is continuous with endolining of blood vessels –> endothelium: Epithelial layers that line both the heart and blood vessels at the inner surface
  • Lines heart chambers and covers cardiac skeleton of valves
  • Simple squamous epithelium and areolar connective tissue
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42
Q

Fibrous skeleton

A

A structure composed of dense irregular connective tissue that internally supports the heart

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43
Q

Cardiac muscle cells at rest

A
  • Sarcolemma has K+ leak channels (helps with repolarization, Na+ leak channels (helps with repolarization), Na+/K+ pumps to maintain RMP
  • RMP = -90 mV
  • Contractile cells
  • Slow voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in sarcolemma help with function of cardiac muscle cells
  • Outside = >Na+, Ca2+
  • Inside = > K+
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44
Q

Interatrial septum

A
  • Separates atria
  • Has the fossa ovalis (only visible in right atrium)
  • A hole in interatrial septum –> ASD –> atrial septum defect
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45
Q

Fossa ovalis

A

Remnant of foramen ovale of fetal heart

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46
Q

Interventricular septum

A
  • Separates the ventricles
  • Hole in interventricular spetum –> VSD –> ventricular septum defect
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47
Q

Coronary sulcus (atrioventricular groove)

A
  • Separates atria from ventricles
  • Anterior interventricular sulcus –> anterior side
  • Posterior interventricular sulcus –> posterior side
  • Has coronary vessels that supply blood to heart wall
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48
Q

Where are pectinate muscles only found?

A

Only in auricles

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49
Q

Trabeculae carneae

A
  • Large, smooth, irregular ridges of muscle on walls
  • In R/L ventricles
  • Join to form papillary muscles
50
Q

Papillary muscles

A
  • Cone shaped projections extending from internal ventricle wall
  • Helps anchor chrodae tendineae
  • # can range from 2 to 9
  • Works with chordae tendineae to prevent inverting flap into atria
51
Q

Tendinous cords (chordae tendineae)

A
  • Thin strands of collagen fibers attaching to AV valve
  • Holds valve flap in closed position
  • Works with papillary muscle to prevent inverting flap into atria
52
Q

Interventricular sulci

A
  • Separates the ventricles from the outside
  • Is over the interventricular septum
53
Q

Heart valves

A
  • Ensure unidirectional flow of the blood
  • Open and close in response to pressure change
  • 2 atrioventricular (AV) valves –> close when ventricles contract and force blood superiorly
54
Q

Semilunar (SL) valves

A
  • No papillary muscles or tendinous cords
  • Prevent backflow into the ventricles when the ventricles relax
  • Open and close in response to pressure change
  • Each of the SL valves has 3 cusps in the shape of a half moon
55
Q

What 2 conditions could weaken the heart in terms of the valves?

A

1.) Incompetent valve –> Blood backflows so heart repumps the same blood over and over –> can accumulate CO2 in the body
2.) Valvular stenosis –> stiff flaps constrict opening –> heart must exert more force to pump blood –> muscle will grow because of increased work and will need more blood supply –> not enough blood can lead to cells dying –> heart attack

56
Q

Pulmonary circulation

A
  • Transports blood from the right side of the heart to the alveoli of the lungs for gas exchange, and back to the left side of the heart
  • Short, low-pressure circulation
57
Q

Systemic circulation/ systemic circuit

A
  • Transports blood from the left side of the heart to the systemic cells of the body for nutrient and gas exchange, and back to the right side of the heart
  • Long, high-friction circulation
58
Q

Coronary circulation

A
  • Because necessities can’t defuse through thick heart wall fast enough
  • Main way of how the heart muscle gets its blood supply –> delivered when the heart is relaxed and the left ventricle receives the most blood supply
  • Contains anastomoses (junctions between arteries or veins)
  • Cannot compensate for coronary artery occlusion
59
Q

Coronary arteries

A
  • Positioned within coronary sulcus
  • Arise from the base of aorta and supply blood to myocardium and open and close (flow is intermittent, not a steady flow)
  • Right and left coronary artery plus their branches
60
Q

Right coronary artery

A
  • Starts at the aorta
  • Branches include…
    1.) Posterior interventricular artery (posterior descending artery)
  • Supply posterior interventricular sulcus/ posterior aspect of the heart
    2.) Right marginal artery
  • Supply the lateral wall of the right ventricle/ lateral right side of the heart
61
Q

Left coronary artery

A
  • Starts at the aorta
  • Supplies interventricular septum, anterior ventricular walls, left atrium, and posterior wall of left ventricle
    Branches include …
    1.) Circumflex artery
  • Supply left atrium and posterior walls of left ventricle
    2.) Anterior interventricular artery (widowmaker)
  • Supply interventricular septum and anterior walls of both ventricles
  • If artery becomes occluded –> risk of heart attack
62
Q

Body tissues are generally served by _________

A
  • One artery (end artery)
  • Some may be served by two or more arteries (arterial anastomoses)
63
Q

Coronary veins

A
  • Collect blood from capillary beds
  • Several anterior cardiac veins empty directly into right atrium anteriorly
  • Coronary sinus
    –> Formed by merging cardiac veins
    –> On posterior aspect
  • Made of 3 merging veins
    1.) Great cardiac vein
  • Within anterior interventricular sulcus
  • Alongside anterior interventricular artery
    2.) Middle cardiac vein
  • Within posterior interventricular sulcus
  • Alongside posterior interventricular artery
    3.) Small cardiac vein
  • In right inferior margin
  • Alongside right marginal artery
64
Q

What are some aspects of cardiac muscle cells that are different than skeletal muscle cells?

A
  • Less numerous T tubles (thus, most Ca2+ comes from blood in ECF)
  • SR simpler than in skeletal muscle
65
Q

What are intercalated discs and what are the components?

A

Intercalated discs: Junctions between cells to anchor cardiac cells, link cells mechanically and electrically
- Components
–> Desmosomes
–> Gap junctions

66
Q

Desmosomes

A
  • Prevent cells from separating during contraction
  • Protein filaments that anchor into a protein plaque located in internal surface of sarcolemma
  • Mechanical junctions
67
Q

Gap junctions

A
  • Allow ions to pass from cell to cell (low resistant pathway)
  • Electrically couple adjacent cells (allow heart to be functional syncytium)
68
Q

Functional syncytium

A
  • A chamber that functions as a single unit
  • Synctium: A multinucleated mass that’s transformed by the main unit of originally separate cells
  • Ex: heart chamber –> the chamber functions as if it were one cell
69
Q

Cardiac muscle cells rely on what type of energy method?

A
  • Aerobic cellular respiration
  • WIthout it, it may rely on lactic acid (from skeletal muscles) and it may have to rely and that or ketone bodies
70
Q

Sinoatrial (SA) node

A
  • Posterior wall of right atrium
  • Cells initiate the heartbeat
  • The pacemaker of the heart
  • Noncontractile (autorhythmic) cells
71
Q

Atrioventricular (AV) node

A
  • On the floor of the right atrium between right AV valve and opening for coronary sinus
72
Q

Atrioventricular (AV) bundle/ “Bundle of His”

A
  • Extends from AV node into and through interventricular septum
  • Divides into left and right bundle branches
73
Q

Purkinje fibers

A
  • Extend from bundle branges beginning at apex and continue through walls of ventricles
  • Large in diameter –> fast action potential to ventricular myocardium –> cardiac muscle cells in both ventricles contract at the same time
74
Q

Conduction system of parasympathetic innervation

A
  • Cardioinhibitory center sends nerve signals along vagus nerve (CN X - 10) –> results in a decrease in heart rate
  • CN X gives off branches that supply the heart, but doesn’t have a direct effect on force of contraction since it doesn’t innervate myocardium
    –> Right vagus nerve –> innvervates SA node
    –> Left vagus nerve –> innervates AV node
75
Q

Conduction system of sympathetic innervation

A
  • Cardioacceleratory center sends merve signals along cardiac nerves –> which results in an increase in both heart rate and force of contraction
  • Neurons within T1-T5 of spinal cord extend to SA node, AV node, and myocardium
76
Q

Receptors in the conduction system include…

A

1.) Baroreceptor
- Some in right atrium
2.) Chemoreceptor

77
Q

What is the cardiac center and what parts make it up?

A

Cardiac center
- In the cardiovascular center of medulla oblongata
- Regulated by autonomic system –> Heart rate and strength of contraction and modifies cardiac activity
Made of…
1.) Cardioacceletory center
2.) Cardioinhibitory center

78
Q

Stimulating heart contraction is organized in two events…

A

1.) Stimulation of the heart by conduction system
2.) Cardiac muscle cells (contraction)
Events occur TWICE in a heartbeat, first in cardiac muscle cells of the atria and then the cardiac muscle cells of the ventricles

79
Q

SA Nodal cells at rest…

A

RMP= -60mV –> maintained by K+ leak channels, Na+ leak channels, and Na+/K+ pumps, but doesn’t have a stable RMP
- Have specific voltage-gated channels
1.) Voltage-gated cation channels (open)
2.) Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels - T-Type and L-Type (closed)
3.) Voltage-gated K+ channels
- Outside > Na+ and Ca2+
- Inside > K+

80
Q

SA nodal cell stimulation steps

A

1.) Reaching threshold
- Cation channels open
- Na+ enters nodal cell, T-type Ca2+ channels open and influx of Ca2+
- Threshold reached (-60mV –> -40mV)
- Cation channels close
2.) Depolarization
- Bc of threshold, voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open
- Ca2+ enters nodal cell
- Depolarization (-40mV –> just above 0 mV)
- Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels close
3.) Repolarization
- Voltage gated K+ channels open
- K+ exits nodal cell
- Repolarization (+ mV –> -60 mV) –> triggers reopening of voltage-gated cation channels, which restarts the process
- Voltage-gated K+ channels close

81
Q

Spread of action potential in the heart (atria and ventricles)

A

1.) Sinoatrial (SA) node and atrial myocardium
- Action potential is generated at SA node
- Action potential spreads along sarcolemma within atria through gap junctions toward AV node
- Allows for both atria to contract at the same time
2.) Atrioventricular (AV) node
- Action potential is delayed at AV node –> allows atria to finish contracting and force blood into ventricles to complete filling
- Action potential is passed to AV bundle within interventricular septum
3.) AV bundle, bundle branches, and purkinje fibers
- AV bundle conducts the action potential to the left and right bundle branches
- Action potential reaches purkinje fibers
4.) Ventricular myocardium
- Action potential spreads from the purkinje fibers to the ventricles by gap junctions
- Simultaneous contraction of both ventricles

82
Q

Cardiac muscle cell stimulation steps

A

1.) Depolarization
- Fast voltage-gated Na+ channels open (by action potential from SA cells)
- Na+ enters cardiac muscle cell
- Depolarization (-90 mV –> +30 mV)
- Fast voltage-gated Na+ channels close to inactivated state
2.) Plateau
- Voltage-gated K+ channels open
- K+ flows out and because this causes a slight membrane potential change –> slow voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open
- Ca2+ enters cell
- B/c of K+ exiting and Ca2+ entering –> no electrical change and depolarization state is maintained
3.) Repolarization
- Voltage-gated K+ channels remain open but voltage-gated Ca2+ are closed to complete repolarization
- K+ moves out of cell
- Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels close
- Repolarization (+30 mV –> -90 mV)

83
Q

What can cardiac muscles not exhibit?

A

Tetany (sustained muscle contraction without relaxation)

84
Q

Autorhythmic (non-contractile) cells

A
  • Have unstable RMP (~ -50-55 mV) due to opening of slow Na+ channels and continuously depolarize
  • Threshold ~ -40 mV
  • Don’t contract
85
Q

What do each of the parts of the cardiac center do?

A

1.) Cardioacceleratory center (sympathetic) –> Affects SA and AV nodes, heart muscle, and coronary arteries
2.) Cardioinhibitory center (parasympathetic) –> Inhibits SA and AV nodes via vagus nerves

86
Q

Electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG)

A
  • Composite of all action potentials generated by nodal and contractile cells at given time
  • 3 waves (indicates electrical changes with depolarization and repolarization within heart regions)
    1.) P Wave
    2.) QRS complex
    3.) T wave
87
Q

Describe the different electrical events of the heart in an ECG

A

1.) P wave
- Atrial depolarization that originate at SA node
- Stimulates the sarcomeres within cardiac muscles
2.) P-Q segment
- Atrial plateau
- Prevents the sarcolemma of the atria from repolarizing –> allowing time for sarcomeres within cardiac muscle cells of the atria to contract and relax
3.) QRS complex
- Stimulates the sarcomeres within cardiac muscle cells of the ventricles to contract
- Q = Down AV bundle/septum
- R = Going down right/left bundle branches
- S = Moving up the purkinje fibers
Atrial repolarization –> not visible on ECG because it occurs at the same time as ventricles depolarizing and allows the atrial to be stimulated again
4.) S-T segment
- Ventricular plateau
- Prevents ventricles from repolarizing, allowing time for sarcomeres within ventricles to contract and relax
- Entire ventricular myocardium depolarized
5.) T wave
- Allows ventricles to be repolarized
- Muscles relax
The end of T wave until the beginning of the next P wave = heart resting between beats

88
Q

What is the P-R interval?

A
  • Goes from the beginning of P wave to beginning of QRS wave (but doesn’t include Q)
  • Time required to transmit an action potential through the entire conduction system (SA Node cells –> Purkinje fibers)
  • If it’s longer than 0.2 seconds –> slow potential and may be a sign of heart block
89
Q

What is the Q-T interval?

A
  • Beginning of QRS complex, through ST segment, to end of T wave
  • Time required for the action potential to occur within the ventricles
  • Between 0.2- 0.4 seconds –> if longer, they may have QT syndrome
90
Q

Ventricular fibrillation

A
  • Ventricles contract in a chaotic way
  • Defibrilizer “tells everyone to be quiet” –> wouldn’t use it on a flatlining patient (they need NE)
91
Q

What are the two heart sounds and when do they each occur?

A

Associated with the closing of heart valves
1.) Lubb
- As AV valves close
- Beginning of systole (when blood is ejected from ventricles)
- S1 sound –> Lubb
2.) Dubb
- As SL valves close
- Beginning of diastole (when blood enters ventricles)
- S2 sound –> Dubb

92
Q

Heart murmurs

A
  • Abnormal heart sounds
  • Usually indicates incompetent or stenotic valves
93
Q

Cardiac cycle

A
  • Blood flow through heart during one complete heartbeat with pressure and blood volume changes
  • 1 heartbeat = Atrial systole (AS) –> atrial diastole (AD) –> ventricular systole (VS) –> ventricular diastole (VD)
  • Systole = contraction
  • Diastole - relaxation
94
Q

Ventricular balance

A
  • Unequal amounts of blood are pumped by the two ventricles through the two circulations
  • Sustained pumping of unequal amounts can lead to edema
95
Q

What are the names of the cardiac cycle?

A

1.) Atrial relaxation and ventricular filling
2.) Atrial contraction and ventricular filling
3.) Isovolumic contraction
4.) Ventricular ejection
5.) Isovolumic relaxation

96
Q

In terms of the atria, ventricles, AV valves, and SL valves, which are open/closed or relaxed/contracted in each of the 5 stages?

A

1.) Atrial relaxation and ventricular filling
Open: AV
2.) Atrial contraction and ventricular filling
Open: AV
Contracting: Atria
3.) Isovolumic contraction
Contracting: Ventricles
4.) Ventricular ejection
Open: SL
Contracting: Ventricles
5.) Isovolumic relaxation
No valves open
None contracting

97
Q

What happens in ejection phase?

A
  • Ventricular pressure exceeds pressure in large arteries, forcing SL valves open
98
Q

Cardiac output (CO)

A
  • Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one minute
  • A measure of how effective the cardiovascular system is in fulfilling its function
  • In a healthy person, it increases during strenuous effort to meet cellular needs
99
Q

What is the formula for cardiac output (CO)?

A

CO (mL/min) = Heart rate (HR) x Stroke volume (SV)
Heart rate = Number of beats per minute
Stroke volume = Volume of blood pumped out by one ventricle with each beat

100
Q

What are the typical amounts for HR and SV and what is the standard CO amount? What is the maximal CO for athletic/nonathletic people?

A

HR ~75 beats/min
SV ~70 mL/beat
CO ~ 5.25 L/min
Maximum CO (non-athletic): may be 4-5 resting CO
Maximum CO (athletic): May reach 35 L/min resting CO

101
Q

Cardiac reserve

A
  • Difference between resting and maximal CO
    Cardiac reserve = CO during exercise - CO at rest
102
Q

What is the formula for SV?

A

Stroke volume (SV) = End diastolic volume (EDV) - End systolic volume (ESV)

103
Q

End diastolic volume (EDV)

A
  • The volume of blood in each ventricle at the end of ventricular diastole (relaxation)
  • How much do you have before you eject
  • Affected by length of ventricular diastole and venous pressure
104
Q

End systolic volume (ESV)

A
  • Volume of blood remaining in each ventricle after systole (contraction)
  • At the end of squeezing, how much blood is left
105
Q

What 3 factors affect SV?

A

1.) Preload –> how much blood you’re loading the heart with before you eject
2.) Contractility –> How strong myocardium is
3.) Afterload –> The pressure you’re trying to overcome

106
Q

Preload

A
  • Degree of stretch of cardiac muscle cells before they contract (Frank-Starling law of heart)
  • At rest, cardiac muscle cells are shower than optimal length
  • Venous return (amount of blood returning to heart) –> most important factor stretching cardiac muscle = EDV
  • EDV volume determines preload (slow heartbeat and exercise increases venous return)
107
Q

Contractility

A
  • (force of contraction) Contractile strength at a given muscle length, independent of muscle stretch and EDV
  • Sympathetic stimulation –> More Ca2+ –> more cross bridges
  • Increased by positive inotropic agents
  • Decreased by negative inotropic agents
108
Q

What are examples of positive and negative inotropic agents?

A

Positive inotropic agents –> Thyroxine, glucagon, epinephrine, norepinephrine, digitalis, high extracellular Ca2+
Negative inotropic agents –> Acidosis, increased extracellular K+, Ca2+ channel blockers

109
Q

Afterload

A
  • Pressure ventricles must overcome to eject blood
  • Hypertension increases afterload –> increased ESV and reduced SV
110
Q

What hormones stimulate heart rate?

A

1,) Norepinephrine and epinephrine (epinephrine increases heart rate and contractility)
2.) Thyroxine –> increase heart rate by enhancing effects of norepinephrine and epinephrine

111
Q

What are chronotropic agents and what are the types?

A
  • Factors that can change heart rate
    Positive chronotropic agents: Causes an increase in heart rate and include sympathetic stimulation and certain types of hormonal stimulation (ex: thyroid hormone increases about of β1 receptors)
    Negative chronotropic agents: Decrease heart rate
112
Q

Atrial reflex (bainbridge reflex)

A
  • Protects heart from overfilling
  • Initiated when baroreceptors (sense blood pressure) in atrial walls are stimulated by an increase in venous return
113
Q

What is hypocalcemia and what does it do to the heart?

A

Hypocalcemia: Low Ca2+ levels
- Depresses heart

114
Q

What is hypercalcemia and what does it do to the heart?

A

Hypercalcemia: High Ca2+ levels
- Increases HR and contractility

115
Q

What is hypokalemia and what does it do to the heart?

A

Hypokalemia: Low K+ levels
- Can result in feeble heartbeat
- Can lead to arrhythmias

116
Q

What is hyperkalemia and what does it do to the heart?

A

Hyperkalemia: High K+ levels
- Alters electrical activity –> can lead to heart block and cardiac arrest

117
Q

Tachycardia vs bradycardia

A

1.) Tachycardia –> abnormally fast heart rate (>100 beats/min)
2.) Bradycardia –> Heart rate slower (<60 beats/min)

118
Q

Congestive heart failure (CHF)

A
  • Blood not being pumped –> Blood stays in heart –> heart gets congested –> blood may backflower
  • Progressive condition
  • CO is so low that blood circulation inadequate to meet tissue needs
  • Reflects weakened myocardium
119
Q

What is pulmonary congestion?

A

Left side fails –> blood backs up in lungs

120
Q

What is peripheral congestion?

A
  • Right side fails –> blood pools into body organs –> edema
121
Q

Moderator band/ septomarginal trabecula

A
  • A muscular band in right ventricle
  • extends from interventricular septum to anterior papillary muscles
  • main function is to carry part of the right bundle branch of the conduction system
122
Q

Ligamentum arteriosum

A
  • A small, fibrius band of tissue that connectd the pulmonary trunk to the aortic arch