chapter 19: decolonisation in Africa and Asia Flashcards
what were the reasons for decolonialisation?
Nationalist Movements – movements to secure independence from the European empires and establish free
independent states appeared in all parts of the world. The strategies employed to secure these aims varied, but all posed a challenge to the imperial governments. Macmillan’s conviction of the strength of African deepened
as a result of a six week tour of Africa in 1960. Belgium and France were also giving up their empire – as one
colony was granted independence, others increased their demands and and it became harder to sustain a case for delay elsewhere. In 1960, 16 new African states entered the UN. These newly independent states pressed for the independence for other colonial territories
-Changing Attitudes in Britain – Maintenance of the empire fell down the priorities list. Largely among the
political class. Looking for the best way forward. By 1960, Macmillan appreciated that any action, other than a rapid devolution of power, might produce insurrection . He realised that the brutal suppression of colonial peoples would damage Britain’s standing and credibility in the eyes of the world as well as being condemned by many Britons. Britons were increasingly indifferent to Empire and were unlikely to support new military burdens, particularly if this meant the reintroduction of National Service. Policy makers could see no good strategic or economic reasons for spending vase sums of money and risking the loss of thousands of lives trying to rule people who had no wish to be ruled
-Changing priorities in Europe – They became less dependent on colonial support and became more reliant in
Europe. By the 1950s, Western Europe was experiencing dramatic post-war recovery, with full employment
and rising living standards. This made it less dependent on colonial support. The emergence of the European
Economic Community (EEC) from 1957 (Britain joined in 1973) helped refocus trade within Europe itself.
From the 1950s support for empire, especially business interest dwindles in all the main European imperial
powers.
-The Cold War – There was a change in global power and France and Britain were no longer dominant. The
USA and the USSR did not have the same agenda as the imperial power and they were both hostile towards
imperialism. Britain was heavily dependent on the USA for defence and economic support, they were
susceptible to American pressures to speed up decolonisation. They were also worried that if they didn’t grant
independence on their terms, they were worried that Africa may become a battle ground between east and
west. Macmillan wanted to construct new democratic states which would remain in the commonwealth and be well disposed to Britain
- Economic Concerns – Britain couldn’t afford to maintain the costs of its empire. They couldn’t afford to fight
a series of long colonial wars to maintain their colonies. The colonies grew more economically viable at the same time. The Great Depression led to poor living conditions in Africa which led to growing discontent with
British Rule . No powers could also afford to fight a series of prolonged colonial wars, fighting against insurgent nationalist movements.
-Specific problems- Neither Britain nor the other imperial powers immediately gave up on their empires after the second world war. The decolonisation of India and Burma and the withdrawal of Palestine in the late 1940s came in response to specific problems in those areas, based on the belief that the benefits of holding onto these possessions were outweighed by the costs that their possessions would incur.
what did Britains post war imperial policy towards Africa place emphasis on?
Britains post war imperial policy placed emphasis upon developing the African colonies so that they could contribute significantly to Britains post war economy. British policy was enshrined in the creation of the Colonial Development Corporation and the African colonies were earmarked for extensive development initiatives. However, WW2 had already accelerated the economic growth of most of the African colonies and together with a measure of industrialisation in some colonies and the expansion of towns and cities this enabled new nationalist ideas to develop.
decolonialisation in Gold Coast?
To some extent, British colonial administrators had anticipated that a rise of an educated African elite would lead to more political representation emerging.
-In 1946 the Burns Constitution was built up in Gold Coast. This established a legislative council of 12 British nominees and 18 elected African members. This was a breakthrough however power still remained in the British hands.
-A wave of unrest spread across the country, as protests against British colonial rule gathered momentum. The Convention People’s Party (CPP) was founded by Kwame Nkrumah in 1949 and pressurised the British
administration to make further concessions. The CPP led a campaign of non-cooperation in January 1950 known as ‘positive action’. The Legislative Council was enlarged and renamed the Legislative Assembly, and the number of people who
could vote for it increased but the British Governor retained ultimate power. Although Nkrumah was gaoled in 1950, the CPP won two thirds of the seats in the Legislative Assembly in
1951and It became clear to Burns that the CPP would have to be brought into government in order to bring the troubles
under control. Nkrumah was therefore released and given the position of prime minister with the members of the CPP talking posts as government ministers.
In 1956, a plebiscite in the neighbouring British land of Togoland delivered an overwhelming vote for the reunification of the Gold Coast. The support for independence was such that in 1957 new elections were held on adult suffrage.
The country became fully independent on 6 March 1957 as Ghana.
when did Gold Coast become independent and what did it become?
Gold Coast became fully independent on March 6th 1957 as Ghana.
Decolonisation in Nigeria?
There was a similar momentum of nationalism in Nigeria after WW2.
-In 1946 the Richard Constitution was set up which had new arrangements for allowing more African representation, however the Governor General and the executive council remaining ultimate power.
-Nigeria was ethnically and regionally divided and the British took the view that any move towards an independent Nigeria should take the form of a federation of separate regional states. 3 assemblies for each of the three regions (north, east and west) were established, to debate local matters and to advise the British governors in these regions
-The Macpherson Constitution of 1951it extended the right to vote and created a National Council of Ministers, answerable to 185-seat Federal House of
Representatives. There was a growth in political parties based around these regions who began to compete for elections to the new House.
-New political parties representing different ethnic groups and regions
-Britain found themselves being pushed for concessions more quickly than they had originally envisaged
-There were further revisions of the constitution and federal elections in 1954
-Following these, a government was formed consisting of 3 British officials and 9 ministers drawn from the carious regional political parties in order to strike a balance at the national level between the different regions. More power was increasingly devolved to the various regional governments and following federal elections in 1959 moves were made towards full independence for the country in October 1960
when was Nigeria given independence?
-October 1960
when was Gambia given full independence?
Feb 1965
when was Sierra Leone given independence?
1961
decolonisation in East Africa?
Rapid economic growth brought urbanisation, greater political consciousness, political activism, nationalism
and labour disputes. During the war, the population of Nairobi in Kenya increased by half, while the populations of Dar-es-Salaam and Mombasa both doubled. High inflation, poor housing and overcrowding which followed fuelled protests. Initially Britain saw this region as being ideal for economic development. These aspirations were seen in the Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme of 1946 and the failure of this scheme provoked East African peasants into supporting the nationalist movement.
Long simmering Kikuyu grievances at their treatment by the British exploded into violence when white settlers tried to displace the native population. This led to the Mau Mau Uprisings between 1952-1956. The British crushed the rebellion forcefully but in doing so they weakened their moral authority and support for the nationalists increased.
Tanganyika was granted independence as Tanzania in 1961. Uganda followed in 1962 and Kenya in December 1963.
when was Tanganyika given independence?
It was given independence as Tanzania in 1961
when was Uganda given independence?
1962
when was Kenya given independence?
1963
why did power over South and Central Africa start to contract by the 1960s?
In South Africa the white minority had full control over its internal affairs following the Statute of Westminster in 1931
-In 1948, the Afrikaner Nationalist party won power and implement the policy of apartheid
-Opposition to apartheid emerged, led primarily by the African National Congress – led by Nelson Mandela
-The South African government responded with brutal suppression of all protests throughout the 1950s and 60s e.g. 69 protestors were killed by police at Sharpeville in March 1960
- International opinion was critical of South Africa and its relationship with Britain were strained
-From 1948 South Africa also pressed, unsuccessfully, for the British to hand over Bechuanaland, Basutoland and Swaziland to SA which the British refused.
-In 1961 the South African white population voted to become a Republic and to leave the Commonwealth
what, when and how was the Central African federation created?
-The CAF was created in 1953 and was the merging of Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland -created in 1953. It was created to provide an effective counter-weight to South Africa and prevent apartheid being implemented
in these areas too
-During the Second World War the administrations of these territories had worked together to assist the war effort
-Britain wanted to make a single, viable colony
-The constitution included some protection for African rights e.g. discriminatory laws against Africans could be vetoed by Britain and there was some limited provision for African representation in the new Federal
Assembly
-Although black people gained a modest share in the Federation’s rising prosperity, black people in the CAF
earned less that 1/10 of white incomes
-Powerful African nationalist movements emerged in al three territories, led by nationalists who were
suspicious of Britain’s intentions. The white governors of the CAF responded fiercely and Nationalist leaders
were arrested and imprisoned: actions which brought increasing disorder
Decolonisation in Nyasaland?
Nyasaland had 7000 white people and 2.5m Africans. It was a relatively economically underdeveloped
territory
-In 1959, politics in Nyasaland had become increasingly troubled
-White people were concerned by increasing disorder and growing support for Dr Hastings Banda (and the NAC) who believed that the CAF was a devise to preserve white control
-The Governor of Nyasaland, Sir Robert Armitage, feared the collapse of British authority and declared a state of emergency in March 1959, supposedly to prevent an armed coup, which banned the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) and Banda and 100 other activists of the Nyasaland African Congress were imprisoned
-51 Africans were killed in the police/military operations which followed
-20 were killed in an incident at Nkata Bay in March 1959 where troops opened fired on a crowd who were
gathered trying to encourage the release of prisoners
-An independent inquiry, the Devlin Commission, condemned the Nyasaland government’s actions – accusing
it of running a police state and it stated that emergency rule was an overreaction. It denounced Nyasaland for employing illegal and unnecessary force and endorsed the opinion that the majority of Nyasaland Africans were bitterly opposed to the federation
-Macmillan’s government rejected Devlin’s report, but it was reluctant to support more repressive policies
-Rioting and violence continued and there was a danger of a breakdown of authority
-In 1960-61, the British government ordered the release of nationalist leaders in Nyasaland and in July 1960, Nyasaland was given a constitution which ensured a black majority in its legislative council which paved the
way for majority rule and independence.
In 1964 Nyasaland became Malawi with a Black majority rule and as a member of the commonwealth.
