Chapter 17 Flashcards
Neurons of the ______________________ control the secretion of glucocorticoids.
Paraventricular nucleus
Long-term exposure to glucocorticoids may affect memory by ________________________.
destroying neurons in the hippocampus
The immune system develops ________ through exposure to ________.
antibodies; antigens
What disorder has symptoms that include uninhibited responses and lack of sustained attention?
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
What is the most common treatment for ADHD?
Methylphenidate
What percent of children with ADHD continue to display symptoms of the disorder into adulthood?
60%
Which of the following is true of autistic disorder (AD)?
AD includes affective, cognitive, and behavioral abnormalities.
What is the mildest form of autism spectrum disorder?
Asperger’s syndrome
Which symptom of autistic disorder is the first to appear?
Impaired social interactions
What is the pattern of growth of autistic brains?
The brain grows quickly during the first two years, but grows very little, or not at all, during early childhood and adolescence.
Moniz proposed that intentional damage to the _____ would relieve human _____.
frontal lobes; anxiety
_______ refer(s) to an intense fear of open space.
Agoraphobia
Which of the following is true of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?
Obsessions are thoughts that cannot be ignored.
What disorder includes physical symptoms such as irregular heartbeat and shortness of breath?
Panic disorder
What drugs are often used for emergency treatment of anxiety disorders?
Benzodiazepines
What disorder that commonly co-occurs (i.e., is comorbid with) GAD does Philip also likely have?
Depression
Philip’s subjective sense of the world is dominated by what theme?
Sense of being rushed
What did Dr. Weekes of Pomona College find in her research on stress?
When individuals are under high levels of stress for short periods of time their memory improves.
The overall accumulated level of stress is called the body’s ____________.
allostatic load
When the brain interprets negative events as stressors, it activates the ____________.
sympathetic nervous system
The ___________ triggers a cascade of physiological changes in the body to help the body deal with whatever action the stressful situation might require.
hypothalamus
The body’s response to stress _____________.
can be voluntarily terminated or reduced by challenging negative thoughts
Benzodiazepines are often used for emergency medical treatment of anxiety disorders, but are less frequently used for long term treatment. All of the following are reasons that Benzodiazepines are not the preferred long term treatment, except:
they prevent withdrawal symptoms
ADHD, the most common behavior disorder in childhood, is usually first discovered _______.
in the classroom
For a person who suffers from social phobia, there is a strong desire to avoid _______________.
speaking or performing in public
The prevalence for panic disorder is about ______ percent, and occurs more often in _____ than _____.
3 to 5; women; men
Which of the following is NOT true regarding behavior frequently observed in autistics?
Autistics show interest in understanding other people.
Ruth has become so afraid that she will have a panic attack that she hasn’t left her house in a month. What disorder does Ruth have?
Agoraphobia
How much more often do boys receive a diagnosis of ADHD than girls?
Ten times as often
Obsessions are seen in both schizophrenia and obsessive-compulsive disorder. The difference is that with obsessive-compulsive disorder, the patient _____________.
wishes the obsessions would go away
What is the relationship between the hippocampus and the development of PTSD?
People with a smaller hippocampus are more likely to develop PTSD.
Hans Selye argued that ill health noted after stress exposure reflects________________.
prolonged secretion of glucocorticoids
Mary has to repeatedly return to her house to make sure the stove burners are turned off and the doors are locked. What disorder does this behavior indicate?
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
John had suffered a number of traumatic events in his early life that led him to drop out of high school. He then enlisted in the army and was sent to Iraq. What disorder is he most at risk for developing?
Posttraumatic stress disorder
The current theories regarding the cause of autism focus more on ________ and less on _______, compared to the past.
biological factors; parenting factors
Which of the following is NOT a treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder?
Transorbital lobotomy
Which of the following predicts the risk of developing PTSD?
A preexisting generalized anxiety disorder
What might be the reason that the fusiform face area is not activated when persons with autism view pictures of human faces?
They have a lack of interest in the human face.
When does obsessive-compulsive disorder usually begin?
Young adulthood
Stress increases the secretion of __________________, which impairs the immune system.
Glucocorticoids
Thalidomide taken by mothers during pregnancy was found to cause autism in children. At what stage of pregnancy were most of the mothers exposed to thalidomide?
20 to 36 days postfertilization
What is the approximate rate of concordance for autism in monozygotic twins?
70%
What is the fear of having a panic attack?
Anticipatory anxiety
Which disorder can be caused by type A β-hemolytic streptococcus?
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Infectious microorganisms have unique proteins on their surfaces called______________.
Antigens
When individuals with social anxiety disorder are shown pictures of angry faces, there is _________________.
increased activation of the amygdala
What effect on dopamine and norepinephrine levels does methylphenidate have that is responsible for the therapeutic effects of the drug in treating ADHD?
It increases the levels of both neurotransmitters.
Why might oxytocin improve the sociability of people with autism spectrum disorder?
It increases trust and closeness to others.
A disproportionate number of children with ADHD develop _______ and _______ as adults.
antisocial personality disorder; substance abuse disorder
Researchers believe that variations in a gene that encodes production of the BDNF protein may play a significant role in _________.
anxiety and depression
The fact that methylphenidate, a dopamine agonist, alleviates the symptoms of ADHD has suggested the hypothesis that this disorder is caused by ______ of dopaminergic transmission.
underactivity
For obsessive-compulsive disorder, most of the compulsions fall into one of the following four categories:
counting, checking, cleaning, avoidance
When treating anxiety disorders, cognitive behavioral therapy uses procedures that ________ the patients to the objects they fear.
desensitize
Patients with autism often have a difficult time forming __________, that is, they are unable to predict and explain the behavior of other human beings in terms of their mental states.
theory of mind
In the days of prefrontal lobotomies under the supervision of Moniz, sometimes _______ was used to perform the operation, which was driven through the brain, and swept back and forth so that it cut through _______.
an ice pick; white matter
Phineas Gage
25-year-old railroad construction foreman; stabbed by a tamping iron and suffered damage to the medial prefrontal lobes; recovered but became irreverent and impulsive
Darwin’s Theory of the Evolution of Emotion
expressions of emotion are products of evolution; they evolve from behaviors that show what an animal is likely to do next; if the signals provided benefit the animal, they evolve to have enhanced communication function and original function may be lost; principle of antithesis; threat displays
Principle of Antithesis
opposite messages are signaled by opposite movements and postures
Threat Displays
survival advantage accrued for those that communicate aggression effectively without fighting; evolved to be more elaborate and combat function declined
James-Lange Theory
autonomic activity and behavior triggered by the emotional event produces feelings of emotion; emotion-inducing sensory stimuli are received and interpreted by the cortex -> triggers changes in visceral organs -> autonomic + somatic responses trigger experience of emotion in the brain
Cannon-Bard Theory
emotional experience and emotional expression are parallel processes triggered by emotional stimuli; they have no direct causal relation
Modern Biopsychological View
perception of the stimulus, autonomic + somatic responses, and the experience of emotion influence each other
Decorticate
cortex has been removed
Sham Rage
exaggerated, poorly directed aggressive responses of decorticate animals
Papez
proposed emotional expression as being controlled by the limbic system; emotional state is expressed through action of other structures of hypothalamus circuits, and experienced through action on the cortex
Limbic
means “border”
Limbic System
a collection of interconnected nuclei and tracts that ring the thalamus; amygdala, mammillary body, hippocampus, fornix, cingulate cortex, septum, olfactory bulb, hypothalamus
Syndrome
pattern of behavior
Klüver-Bucy Syndrome
from bilateral damage to the amygdalae; consumption of anything that is edible, increased sexual activity directed at inappropriate objects, tendency to repeatedly investigate familiar objects, tendency to investigate with the mouth, lack of fear, placidity, visual distractibility
Amygdala
structure in the anterior temporal lobe, anterior to hippocampus; has a role in emotion
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) / Lou Gehrig’s Disease
disease that causes the death of neurons controlling voluntary muscles
Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS)
rapid-onset muscle weakness caused by the immune system damaging the peripheral nervous system
Tourette Syndrome
neurological disorder characterized by repetitive, stereotyped, involuntary movements and vocalizations called tics; named after Dr Georges Gilles de la Tourette
Polygraphy / Lie Detector Test
method of interrogation that employs ANS indexes of emotion to infer the truthfulness of a person’s responses
Mock-Crime Procedure
volunteers participate in a mock crime and are then subjected to a polygraph text by an examiner who is unaware of their innocence / guilt
Control-Question Technique
physiological response to the target question is compared with responses to control questions whose answers are known
Guilty-Knowledge Technique / Concealed Information Test
polygrapher must have a piece of information about the crime known only to the guilty person; suspect’s reaction to actual and contrived details of a crime are assessed
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
facial expressions influence our emotional experience
Microexpressions
brief facial expressions
Orbicularis Oculi
facial muscles that encircle the eyes and pull the skin from the cheeks and forehead toward the eyeball; only contracted in a Duchenne smile
Zygomaticus Major
facial muscle that pulls the lower lip corners up
Duchenne Smile
a genuine smile
Fear
emotional reaction to threat; motivating force for defensive behaviors
Defensive Behaviors
behaviors whose primary function is to protect the organism
Aggressive Behaviors
behaviors whose primary function is to threaten or harm
Colony-Intruder Model of Aggression and Defense
rat intraspecific aggressive and defensive behaviors through studying the interactions between the alpha male and a small male intruder
Target-Site Concept
aggressive and defensive behaviors of an animal are often design to attack specific sites of the body of the fore whole protecting specific sites of its own
Septal Aggression / Septal Rage
from lateral septum lesions in rats; rats do not initiate more attacks but are hyperdefensive when threatened
Fear Conditioning
establishment of fear in response to a previously neutral stimulus by presenting it before the delivery of an aversive stimulus
Auditory Fear Conditioning
fear conditioning using sound as conditional stimulus
Medial Geniculate Nucleus
auditory relay nucleus of the thalamus; bilateral lesions block auditory fear conditioning
Contextual Fear Conditioning
process by which benign contexts come to elicit fear through association with fear-inducing stimuli
Hippocampus
has a role in memory for spatial location and contextual fear conditioning; bilateral lesions block subsequent development of a fear response to the context but not to the explicit conditional stimulus; projects to lateral nucleus of amygdala, interacts with it to mediate learning about the context of fear-related events
Lateral Nucleus of the Amygdala
critically involved in acquisition, storage, and expression of conditioned fear
Prefrontal Cortex
projects to lateral nucleus of amygdala and acts on it to suppress conditioned fear
Central Nucleus of Amygdala
outputs are means for the amygdala to control defensive behavior
Embodiment of Emotions
reexperiencing of related patterns of motor, autonomic, and sensory neural activity during emotional experiences
Urbach-Wiethe Disease
genetic disorder that leads to calcification of amygdala and surrounding anterior medial temporal lobe structures; loss of ability to recognize facial expressions of fear and other complex visual stimuli
Suppression Paradigm
participants are directed to inhibit emotional reactions to unpleasant media
Reappraisal Paradigm
participants are instructed to reinterpret a picture to change their emotional reaction to it
Medial Prefrontal Lobes
hypothesized to monitor the difference between outcome and expectancy, encode stimulus over time, predict likelihood of error, mediate conscious awareness of emotional stimuli, mediate social decision making
Right Hemisphere Model of Cerebral Lateralization of Emotion
the right hemisphere is specialized for all aspects of emotional processing (perception, expression, experience of emotion)
Valence Model of Cerebral Lateralization of Emotion
the right hemisphere is specialized for processing negative emotions while the left is more processing positive emotion
Stress Response / Stress
cluster of physiological changes in response to the body being exposed to harm or threat; (short term) produces adaptive changes that help the animal respond to the stressor; (long term) produces changes that are maladaptive
Stressors
emphasized the dual nature of the stress response (short and long term)
Anterior-Pituitary Adrenal-Cortex System
stressors acting on neural circuits stimulate release of ACTH from anterior pituitary -> triggers the release of glucocorticoids from adrenal cortex
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
hormone from anterior pituitary that triggers release of glucocorticoids from adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids
steroid hormones from the adrenal cortex; produce many components of the stress response; levels in the bloodstream as most commonly employed physiological measure of stress
Adrenal Medulla
releases more amounts of epinephrine and norepinephrine due to activation of sympathetic nervous system by stress
Cytokines
peptide hormones released by many cells that participate in a variety of physiological and immunological responses, causing inflammation and fever; released by damaged cells and attract white blood cells and phagocytes
Major Stress Hormones
cytokines and adrenal hormones
Subordination Stress
from conspecific threats becoming an enduring feature of daily life
Bullying
a chronic social threat that induces subordination stress in conspecifics
Psychosomatic Disorders
medical disorders where psychological factors play a causal role
Gastric Ulcers
one of the first medical disorders classified as psychosomatic; painful lesions to the lining of the stomach and duodenum; caused by Helicobacter Pylori and stress
Psychoneuroimmunology
study of interactions among psychological factors, the nervous system, and immune system
Four Lines of Defense of the Body
behavioral immune systems, surface barriers, immune system (innate and adaptive)
Behavioral Immune Systems
humans are motivated to avoid contact with individuals displaying symptoms of illness; bodies are primed to respond more aggressively to infection when they perceive symptoms in others
Surface Barriers
protect body from invasions through bodily openings; skin, coughing, sneezing, mucous
Innate Immune System
first component of the immune system to react; reacts quickly and near points of entry of pathogens; triggers when toll-like receptors bind to molecules on the surface of pathogens or when injured cells send out alarm signals; one of the first reactions is inflammation
Pathogens
disease-causing agents
Toll-Like Receptors
receptors found in cell membranes of cells in innate immune system; trigger phagocytosis and inflammatory responses
Leukocytes
white blood cells
Phagocytes
cells that engulf and destroy pathogens
Microglia
phagocytes specific to CNS
Phagocytosis
destruction of pathogens by phagocytes
Adaptive Immune System
component of immune system that evolved more recently, is slower, reacts against specific antigens, and has a memory; main cells are lymphocytes; cell-mediated immunity and antibody-mediated immunity
Lymphocytes
specialized leukocytes produced in bone marrow and thymus gland, are stored in lymphatic system; B Cells and T Cells
T Cells
lymphocytes that bind to foreign microorganisms and destroy them
B Cells
lymphocytes that manufacture antibodies against antigens they encounter
Cell-Mediated Immunity
directed by T Cells; phagocyte ingests a foreign microorganism -> antigens are displayed -> T Cells are attracted and bind to the surface of an infected macrophage -> T Cells multiply, creating more T Cells with the specific receptor necessary to destroy all invaders that contain the target antigens
Antibody-Mediated Immunity
directed by B Cells; B Cell with appropriate receptor binds to foreign antigen -> B Cell multiplies and synthesizes a lethal form of receptor molecules -> lethal receptor molecules are released into intracellular fluid -> bind to foreign antigens and destroy the microorganisms -> memory cells are produced during the process and accelerate antibody-mediated immunity if there is subsequent infection by the same microorganism
Antigens
molecules (usually proteins) that trigger an immune response
Antibodies
lethal receptor molecules of B Cells; bind to foreign antigens and destroy microorganisms
Prophylactic
preventative
Vaccination
administering a weakened form of a virus so the adaptive immune system is prepared to act against it
Immunization
the process of creating immunity through vaccination
Distress
stress that disrupts health or other aspects of functioning
Eustress
stress that improves health or other aspects of functioning
Corticosterone
a major glucocorticoid that can induce stress effects (reduce dendritic branching and adult neurogenesis) in the hippocampus
Adrenalectomy
surgical removal of the adrenal glands
