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Biology - Chapters 11-18 > Chapter 16 - Sensory, Motor & Integrative Systems > Flashcards

Chapter 16 - Sensory, Motor & Integrative Systems Flashcards

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1
Q

What is sensation?

A

The conscious or subconscious awareness of changes in the external or internal environment

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2
Q

What is perception?

A

The conscious awareness & interpretation of sensations

- function of cerebral cortex

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3
Q

What is sensory modality?

A

Each unique type of sensation

- touch, pain, vision, hearing

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4
Q

If a neuron relays impulses for touch, will it also relay for pain?

A

NO!

- a given sensory neuron carries information for only one sensory modality

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5
Q

What are general senses?

A

Refer to both somatic senses & visceral senses

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6
Q

What are somatic senses?

A 
Tactile sensations
(touch, pressure, vibration, itch & tickle)
Thermal sensations (warm/cold)
Pain sensations
Proprioceptive sensations
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7
Q

What information do visceral senses provide?

A

Provide information about conditions within internal organs

pressure, stretch, chemicals, nausea, hunger, temperature

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8
Q

What are the special senses?

A

Smell, taste, hearing, vision, equilibrium/balance

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9
Q

How does a sensation arise?

A
  1. Stimulation of the sensory receptor
  2. Transduction of the stimulus
  3. Generation of nerve impulse
  4. Integration of sensory input
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10
Q

What is a sensory receptor?

A

A specialized cell or the dendrites of a sensory neuron

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11
Q

What is a stimulus?

A

A change in the environment that can activate certain sensory receptors

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12
Q

What is selectivity?

A

How a sensory receptor will react to one stimulus and weakly or not at all to other stimuli

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13
Q

What is the receptive field?

A

The body region where stimulation activates the receptor and produces a response

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14
Q

What are first-order neurons?

A

Sensory neurons that conduct impulses from the PNS into the CNS

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15
Q

What are the classification types of sensory receptors?

A
  1. Microscopic structure
  2. Location of the receptors & their origin of stimuli that activate them
  3. Type of stimulus detected
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16
Q

What are the three types of microscopic structures of sensory receptors?

A
  1. Free nerve endings of first-order sensory neurons
  2. Encapsulated nerve endings of first-order sensory neurons
  3. Separate cells that synapse with first-order sensory neurons
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17
Q

What are free nerve endings?

A

Bare dendrites

- lack any structural specializations

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18
Q

What are some examples of free nerve endings?

A

Receptors for pain, temperature, tickle, itch, and some touch sensations

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19
Q

What are encapsulated nerve endings?

A

Dendrites that are enclosed in a connective tissue capsule

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20
Q

What are some examples of encapsulated nerve endings?

A

Receptors for pressure, vibration, and some touch sensations

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21
Q

What are separate cells? (sensory receptors)

A

Sensory receptors for specialized senses that are specialized
- synapse with sensory neurons

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22
Q

What are some example of separate cells? (sensory receptors)

A

Hair cells - for hearing & equilibrium in ear
Gustatory receptor cells - taste buds
Photoreceptors - for vision in the eye

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23
Q

Sensory receptors produce what two kinds of graded potentials?

A
  1. Generator potentials

2. Receptor potentials

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24
Q

What is a generator potential?

A

Dendrites of free & encapsulated nerve endings
- when a generator potential is large enough to reach threshold, it triggers one or more nerve impulses in the axon of the first-order sensory neuron

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25
Q

What do generator potentials generate?

A

Action potentials

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26
Q

What is a receptor potential?

A

Separate cells produce receptor potentials

- trigger release of neurotransmitter though exocytosis of synaptic vesicles

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27
Q

What are the three location types of sensory receptors?

A
  1. Exteroceptors
  2. Interoceptors
  3. Proprioceptors
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28
Q

What are exteroceptors sensitive to?

Where are they located?

A

Located at or near the external surface of the body

  • sensitive to stimuli originating outside the body
  • provide information on external environment
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29
Q

What are examples of exteroceptors?

A

Sensations for hearing, vision, smell, taste, touch, pressure, vibration, temperature, and pain

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30
Q

What do interoceptors monitor?

Where are they located?

A

Located in blood vessels, visceral organs, muscles, and the nervous system

  • monitor conditions on the internal environment
  • not usually consciously perceived
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31
Q

What information do proprioceptors provide?

Where are they located?

A

Located in muscles, tendons, joints, and inner ear

- provide information about body position, muscle length and tension, and position and movement of joints

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32
Q

What are the 6 Stimulus Detected types of sensory receptors?

A
  1. Mechanoreceptors
  2. Thermoreceptors
  3. Nociceptors
  4. Photoreceptors
  5. Chemoreceptors
  6. Osmoreceptors
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33
Q

What are mechanoreceptors sensitive to?

A

Mechanical stimuli

- deformation, stretching, bending

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34
Q

What sensations do mechanoreceptors provide?

A

Touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception, hearing, equilibrium
- monitor stretching of blood vessels & internal organs

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35
Q

What do themoreceptors detect?

A

Changes in temperature

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36
Q

What are nociceptors responsive to?

A

Respond to painful stimuli resulting from physical or chemical damage

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37
Q

What do photoreceptors detect?

A

Light that strikes the retina of the eye

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38
Q

What do chemoreceptors detect?

A

Chemicals in the mouth (taste), nose (smell) and body fluids

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39
Q

What do osmoreceptors detect?

A

Osmotic pressure of body fluids

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40
Q

What is a characteristic of most sensory receptors?

A

Adaptation

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41
Q

What is adaptation?

A

The generator potential or receptor potential decreases in amplitude during a maintained, constant stimulus

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42
Q

What causes the perception of a sensation to fade/dissappear even though the stimulus persists?

A

Adaptation

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43
Q

What are rapidly adapting receptors?

A

Adapt very quickly

- specialized for signaling CHANGES in a stimulus

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44
Q

Give some examples of rapidly adapting receptors.

A

Pressure, touch, and smell

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45
Q

What are slowly adapting receptors?

A

Adapt slowly

- Continue to trigger nerve impulses as long as the stimulus persists

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46
Q

Give some example of slowly adapting receptors.

A

Receptors that monitor stimuli associated with pain, body position, and chemical composition of the blood

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47
Q

What is a phasic receptor?

A

A rapidly adapting receptor

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48
Q

What is a tonic receptor?

A

A slowly adapting receptor

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49
Q

What are cutaneous sensations?

A

Somatic sensations that arise from stimulating the skin surface

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50
Q

What are the 4 modalities of somatic sensation?

A
  1. Tactile
  2. Thermal
  3. Pain
  4. Proprioceptive
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51
Q

Where do somatic sensations arise?

A

Arise from stimulation of sensory receptors embedded in the skin or subcutaneous layer, mucous membranes (mouth, vagina, anus), muscles, tendons, joints, inner ear

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52
Q

What are the tactile sensations?

A

Touch, pressure, vibration, itch & tickle

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53
Q

What are some examples of tactile receptors in the skin/subcutaneous layer? (6)

A 
Meissner corpuscles
Hair root plexuses
Merkel discs
Ruffini corpuscles
Pacinian corpuscles
Free nerve endings
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54
Q

How does the sensation of touch arise?

A

Generally from stimulation of tactile receptors in the skin or subcutaneous layer

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55
Q

What are the two types of rapidly adapting touch receptors?

A
  1. Meissner corpuscles

2. Hair root plexuses

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56
Q

What are meissner corpuscles?

Where are they located?

A

Touch receptors (rapidly adapting)

  • mass of dendrites enclosed by a capsule of connective tissue
  • located in the dermal papillae of hairless skin
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57
Q

Where are meissner corpuscles abundant?

A

Fingertips, hands, eyelids, tip of tongue, lips, nipples, soles, clitoris, tip of penis

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58
Q

What are hair root plexuses?

A

Touch receptors (rapidly adapting)

  • found in hairy skin
  • free nerve endings wrapped around hair follicles
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59
Q

What are the two types of slowly adapting touch receptors?

A
  1. Merkel discs

2. Ruffini corpuscles

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60
Q

What are Merkel discs?

Where are they located?

A

Tactile discs (Type I)

  • saucer-shaped, flattened free nerve endings
  • make contact with merkel cells in stratum basale
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61
Q

Where are merkel discs abundant?

A

Fingertips, hands, lips, external genitalia

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62
Q

What are Ruffini corpuscles?

Where are they located?

A

Type II

  • elongated, encapsulated receptors
  • located deep in the dermis & in ligaments & tendons
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63
Q

Where are Ruffini corpusces abundant?

Where are they absent?

A

Present in hands

Absent in soles

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64
Q

What are Ruffini corpuscles most sensitive to?

A

Stretching that occurs as digits or limbs are moved

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65
Q

What is pressure?

A

A sustained sensation that is felt over a larger area than touch
- occurs with deformation of deeper tissues

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66
Q

What are the receptors that contribute to sensations of pressure?

A
  1. Meissner corpuscles
  2. Merkel discs
  3. Pacinian corpuscles
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67
Q

What are pacinian corpuscles composed of? (lamellated)

A

Large oval structure composed of multilayered connective tissue capsule that encloses a dendrite

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68
Q

Are Pacinian corpuscles rapidly or slowly adapting?

A

Rapidly

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69
Q

Where are Pacinian corpuscles located?

A 
Dermis & subcutaneous layer
Submucosal tissues (under mucous & serous membranes)
Joints, tendons & muscles
Periosteum
Mammary glands
External genitalia
Pancreas & urinary bladder
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70
Q

How do sensations of vibrations arise?

A

Result from rapidly repetitive sensory signals from tactile receptors

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71
Q

What are the receptors for vibration?

A
  1. Meissner corpuscles - lower frequency vibrations

2. Pacinian corpuscles - higher frequency vibrations

72
Q

How does the itch sensation arise?

A

Results from stimulation of free nerve endings by certain chemicals
- often b/c of local inflammatory reponse

73
Q

What is an example of an itch sensation?

A

Anitgens in mosquito bites

74
Q

What mediates the tickle sensation?

A

Free nerve endings

75
Q

What is the phantom limb sensation?

A

Individuals who still perceive sensations (itching, pressure, tingling or pain) in an amputated limb

76
Q

How is the phantom limb sensation activated?

A

Severed endings of sensory axons are still present in the remaining stump
- if they are activated, the cerebral cortex interprets the sensation as coming from the sensory receptors in the non-existing limb

77
Q

What is the other explanation for phantom limb sensation?

A

The cerebral cortex undergoes extensive functional reorganization that allows it to respond to stimuli from another body part
- gives rise to false sensory perceptions

78
Q

What are themoreceptors?

A

Free nerve endings, sense hot & cold

  • adapt rapidly at the onset of a stimulus
  • receptive fields about 1 mm in diameter on the skin surface
79
Q

What are the two kinds of themoreceptors?

A
  1. Cold receptors

2. Warm receptors

80
Q

Where are cold receptors located?

A

In the stratum basale of the epidermis

  • connected to myelinated A fibres
  • few connected to unmyelinated C fibres
81
Q

What temperatures activate cold receptors?

A

10 - 40 degrees Celsius

82
Q

Where are warm receptors located?

A

In the dermis

- connected to unmyelinated C fibres

83
Q

What temperatures activate warm receptors?

A

32 - 48 degrees Celsius

84
Q

What happens at temperatures below 10 and above 48 degrees celsius?

A

Pain receptors are stimulated

85
Q

What is the function of pain receptors?

A

Protective function

- signals the presence of noxious, tissue-damaging conditions

86
Q

What are nociceptors?

A

Pain receptors

- free nerve endings

87
Q

Where are nociceptors located?

A

In every tissue, except brain tissue

88
Q

What can activate nociceptors?

A

Intense thermal, mechanical or chemical stimuli

89
Q

Why can pain persist even after a pain-producing stimulus is removed?

A

B/c pain-mediating chemicals linger

B/c nociceptors exhibit very little adaptation

90
Q

What are the two kinds of pain?

A
  1. Fast

2. Slow

91
Q

Describe fast pain.

how fast it occurs, type of fibre

A

Occurs very rapidly, within 0.1 seconds after a stimulus is applied
- nerve impulses propagate along myelinated A fibres

92
Q

How can fast pain be described?

A

Acute, sharp, pricking pain

- needle prick, knife cut

93
Q

Describe slow pain.

how fast it occurs, type of fibre

A

Begins a second or more after the stimulus is applied

  • gradually increases in intestity over seconds/minutes
  • along unmyelinated C fibres
94
Q

How can slow pain be described?

A

Chronic, burning, aching, throbbing

- skin deep or within organs

95
Q

What is superficial somatic pain?

A

Pain that arises from stimulation of receptors in the skin

96
Q

What is deep somatic pain?

A

Pain that arises from stimulation in skeletal muscles, joints, tendons, & fascia

97
Q

What is visceral pain?

A

Pain that arises from stimulation of nociceptors in visceral organs

98
Q

What does diffuse mean?

A

Involves large areas

99
Q

True or false?

Fast pain is more diffuse.

A

False!

Fast pain is very precisely localized to the stimulated area

100
Q

What is referred pain?

A

Pain is felt in or just deep to the skin that overlies the stimulated organ
- visceral pain

101
Q

What do proprioceptive sensations allow us to do?

A

Know where our head and limbs are located and how they are moving without looking at them

102
Q

What is kinesthesia?

A

The perception of body movements

103
Q

What are proprioceptors?

A

Receptors for proprioceptive sensations

104
Q

Do proprioceptors adapt rapidly or slowly?

A

Slowly!

  • Slowly and only slightly
  • brain continually receives nerve impulses related to the position of different body parts and makes adjustments to ensure coordination
105
Q

What are muscle spindles?

What do they monitor?

A

Proprioceptors in skeletal muscles

- monitor changes in the length of skeletal muscles & participate in stretch reflexes

106
Q

What is muscle tone?

A

Small degree of constraction that is present while the muscle is at rest

107
Q

What are intrafusal muscle fibres?

A

Skeletal muscle fibers that serve as specialized sensory organs (proprioceptors) that detect the amount and rate of change in length of a muscle.

108
Q

What does each muscle spindle consist of?

A

Several slowly adapting sensory nerve endings that wrap around 3 - 10 specialized muscle fibers

109
Q

Where are muscle spindles abundant?

A

In muscles that produce finely controlled movements

110
Q

What are gamma motor neurons?

A

Motor neurons that terminate near both ends of the intrafusal fibers and adjust the tension in a muscle spindle to variations in the length of the muscle
- receive input from CNS

111
Q

What are extrafusal muscle fibers?

A

Ordinary skeletal muscle fibers that surround muscle spindles

112
Q

What are alpha motor neurons?

A

Innervate extrafusal muscle fibers of skeletal muscle and are directly responsible for initiating their contraction.
- receive input from CNS

113
Q

Where are tendon organs located?

A

At the junction of a tendon & a muscle

114
Q

What is the function of tendon organs?

A

Protect tendons & their associated muscles from damage due to excessive tension
- slow adaptation

115
Q

What are joint kinesthetic receptors?

A

Free nerve endings & Ruffini corpuscles
- respond to pressure
Pacinian corpuscles
- respond to acceleration and deceleration of joints during movement
Tendon organs
- adjust reflex inhibition of adjacent muscles when excessive strain is placed on the joint

116
Q

Where are joint kinesthetic receptors located?

A

Within and around the articular cartilage of synovial joints

117
Q

What do somatic sensory pathways relay?

A

Information from the somatic sensory receptors to the primary somatosensory area in the cerebral cortex & cerebellum

118
Q

What are the set of three neurons?

A
  1. First-order
  2. Second-order
  3. Third-order
119
Q

What do first-order neurons do?

A

Conduct impulses from somatic receptors into the brain stem or spinal cord

  • cranial nerves: face, mouth, teeth, eyes
  • spinal nerves: neck, trunk, limbs, posterior aspect of head
120
Q

What is the function of second-order neurons?

A

Conduct impulses from the brain stem & spinal cord to the thalamus

121
Q

Which order of neurons decussate?

A

Second-order

- cross over to the opposite side in the brain stem or spinal cord before ascending to thalamus

122
Q

What is the function of third-order neurons?

A

Conduct impulses from the thalamus to the primary somatosensory area of the cortex on the same side

123
Q

What are the three ways that somatic sensory impulses ascend to the cerebral cortex?

A
  1. Posterior column - medial lemniscus pathway
  2. Anterolateral (spinothalamic)
  3. Trigeminothalamic
124
Q

Which nerve impulses ascend along the posterior column - medial lemniscus pathway?

A

Nerve impulses for touch, pressure, vibration, and conscious proprioception
- all three orders of neurons

125
Q

Which nerve impulses ascend along the anterlater (spinothalamic) pathway?

A

Nerve impulses for pain, temperature, itch & tickle from the limbs, trunk, neck & posterior head ascend to cerebral cortex
- all three orders of neurons

126
Q

Which nerve impulses ascend along the trigeminothalamic pathways?

A

Nerve impulses for somatic sensations (tactile, thermal, pain) from the face, nasal cavity, oral cavity and teeth

127
Q

Where is the primary somatosensory area located?

A

Occupies the postcentral gyri of the parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex

128
Q

What does each region of the primary somatosensory area receive?

A

Sensory input from a different part of the body

- left side of body = right cerebral hemisphere

129
Q

Which parts of the body provide input to large regions of the primary somatosensory area?

A

Lips, face, tongue and hand

130
Q

What is sensory homunculus?

A

Distorted sensory map of the body

  • large regions for lips
  • small regions for trunk
131
Q

What are the two routes that proprioceptive impulses take to reach the cerebellum?

A
  1. Posterior spinocerebellar tract

2. Anterior spinocerebellar tract

132
Q

What sensory impulses are conveyed along the posterior and anterior spinocerebellar tracts?

A

Critical for posture, balance, and coordination of skilled movements

133
Q

What are lower motor neurons? (LMN)

A
  • cell bodies in the brain stem & spinal cord
  • axons extend through CRANIAL nerves to innervate skeletal muscles of the face & head
  • axons extend through SPINAL nerves to innervate skeletal muscles of limbs & trunk
134
Q

Which type of motor neuron provides output from the CNS to skeletal muscle fibers?

A

Lower motor neurons

135
Q

What are upper motor neurons? (UMN)

A
  • Essential for the execution of voluntary movements of the body (UMN from cerebral cortex)
  • Regulate muscle tone, control postural muscles, & help maintain balance (UMN from brain stem)
136
Q

What are the 4 neural circuits that participate in control of movement by providing input to lower motor neurons?

A

Somatic motor pathways

  1. Local circuit neurons
  2. Upper motor neurons
  3. Basal nuclei neurons
  4. Cerebellar neurons
137
Q

What are the two kinds of somatic motor pathways?

A
  1. Direct motor pathways

2. Indirect motor pathways

138
Q

What do direct motor pathways provide input to?

A

To lower motor neurons via axons that extend directly from the cerebral cortex

139
Q

What do indirect motor pathways provide input to?

A

To lower motor neurons from motor centers in the basal nuclei, cerebellum & cerebral cortex

140
Q

Where is the primary motor area located and what is it’s function?

A
  • Located in the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe

- Major control region for the execution of voluntary movements

141
Q

What do direct motor pathways consist of?

A

Corticospinal pathway & corticobulbar pathway

142
Q

What are the pathway functions of the lateral corticospinal pathway?

A

Conveys nerve impulses from motor cortex to skeletal muscles on opposite side of body
- precise, voluntary movements of distal parts of limbs

143
Q

What are the pathway functions of the anterior corticospinal pathway?

A

Conveys nerve impulses from motor cortex to skeletal muscles on opposite side of body
- movements of trunk, and proximal parts of limbs

144
Q

What are the pathway functions of the corticobulbar pathway?

A

Conveys nerve impulses from motor cortex to skeletal muscles of head & neck
- coordinate precise, voluntary movements

145
Q

What are the 4 indirect pathways?

What are their pathway functions?

A
  1. Rubrospinal - precise, voluntary movements of distal parts of upper limbs
  2. Tectospinal - move head, eyes & trunk in response to visual & auditory stimuli
  3. Vestibulospinal - maintains posture & balance, in response to head movements
  4. Medial & lateral reticulospinal - maintains posture & regulates muscle tone
146
Q

What are the functions of the basal ganglia?

A
  1. Major role in the initiation & termination of movements
  2. Suppress unwanted movements by their inhibitory effects
  3. Influence muscle tone
  4. Help initiate & terminate some cognitive processes (attention, memory, & planning)
  5. Regulate emotional behaviours
147
Q

The cerebellum function involves which 4 activities?

A
  1. monitoring intentions for movement
  2. monitoring actual movement
  3. comparing command signals with sensory information
  4. sending out corrective feedback
148
Q

What are the integrative functions of the cerebrum?

A
  • sleep & wakefulness
  • learning & memory
  • emotional responses
149
Q

What is the circadian rhythm and how is it established?

A

24 hour cycle (sleep & wakefulness)

- established by the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus

150
Q

What is the reticular activating system (RAS) responsible for?

A

Responsible for regulating wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions

151
Q

What is arousal and what does it involve?

A

Awakening from sleep

- involves increased activity in the RAS

152
Q

In order for arousal to occur, what must be stimulated?

A

The RAS

- once the RAS is activated, the cerebral cortex is activated and then arousal occurs

153
Q

What is consciousness?

A

State of wakefulness

154
Q

Which sense does not result in the stimulation of the RAS?

A

Olfactory receptors

- strong odors may fail to cause arousal

155
Q

What is sleep?

A

A state of altered consciousness or partial unconsciousness from which an individual can be aroused

156
Q

What does sleep deprivation impair?

A

Attention, learning, & performance

157
Q

What are the 4 stages of NREM?

non-rapid eye movement

A
  1. Transition stage between wakfulness & sleep
  2. Light sleep - person is more difficult to awaken
  3. Moderate deep sleep - body temperature & blood pressure decreases
  4. Deep sleep -brain metabolism decreases, reflexes are intact
158
Q

During a typical 7 or 8 hour sleep period, how many episodes of REM sleep are there?

A

3-5

159
Q

What is REM sleep?

A

Rapid eye movement

- eyes move rapidly back and forth under closed eyelids

160
Q

When dos REM sleep occur?

A

A person will ascend through stages 3 and 2 before entering REM sleep

161
Q

How much REM sleep does an adult have in a typical night?

A

90-120 minutes

162
Q

Do dreams occur in NREM or REM sleep?

A

REM sleep

163
Q

When does sleep walking occur?

A

NREM - stage 4 (deep sleep)

164
Q

What is learning?

A

The ability to acquire new information or skills through instruction or experience

165
Q

What is memory?

A

The process by which information acquired through learning is stored & received

166
Q

What is plasticity?

A

Ability to change our behaviors in response to stimuli from the external & internal environments

167
Q

What is immediate memory?

A

The ability to recall ongoing experiences for a few seconds

- allows us to know where we are & what we are doing

168
Q

What is short term memory?

A

Temporary ability to recall a few pieces of information for seconds to minutes

169
Q

What is long term memory?

A

A more permanent type of memory

- can last days to years

170
Q

What is memory consolidation?

A

Reinforcement that results from the frequent retrieval of a piece of information

171
Q

What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?

A

Believed to underlie some aspects of memory
- transmission at some synapses within the hippocampus is enhanced for hours or weeks after a brief period of high-frequency stimulation

172
Q

What is parkinson disease?

A

Progressive disorder of CNS

  • involuntary skeletal muscle contractions oftern interfere with voluntary movements
  • slowness of movements
  • decreased range of motion
173
Q

What is cerebral palsy?

A

Motor disorder that results in the loss of muscle control and coordination
- caused by damage of the motor areas of the brain during fetal life, birth or infancy

174
Q

What is insomnia?

A

Difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep

- causes: stress, caffeine, disruption of circadian rhythms, depression

175
Q

What is narcolepsy?

A

REM sleep cannot be inhibited during waking periods

- involuntary periods of sleep that last about 15 minutes occur throughout the day

176
Q

What is sleep apnea?

A

A disorder in which a person repeatedly stops breathing for 10 or more seconds while sleeping
- occurs b/c a loss of muscle tone in pharyngeal muscles allows the airways to collapse

Biology - Chapters 11-18 (8 decks)

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