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PSY Exam 4 Prep Folder > Chapter 16 - Respiration > Flashcards

Chapter 16 - Respiration Flashcards

1
Q

Ventilation:

A

the mechanical process that moves air into and out of the lungs

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2
Q

Conducting zone:

A

includes all of the anatomical structures through which air passes before reaching the respiratory zone; consists of the mouth, nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary bronchi, and all successive branchings of the bronchioles up to and including the terminal bronchioles.

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3
Q

Respiratory zone:

A

the region where gas exchange occurs, and it therefore includes the respiratory bronchioles and the terminal alveolar sacs.

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4
Q

Dead space:

A

comprises the conducting zone of the respiratory system where no gas exchange occurs. Air within this space contains a higher concentration of carbon dioxide and a lower oxygen concentration than the external air.

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5
Q

Alveoli:

A

functional units of the lungs; air sacs where the diffusion of gases occurs.

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6
Q

Type I alveolar cells:

A

comprise 95-97% of the total surface area of the lungs; gas exchange with the blood thus occurs primarily through type I alveolar cells.

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7
Q

Type II alveolar cells:

A

secrete pulmonary surfactant and that reabsorb Na+ and H2O thereby preventing fluid buildup within the alveoli.

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8
Q

Respiratory bronchioles:

A

clusters of alveoli occur at the ends of these structures, which are very thin air tubes that end blindly in alveolar sacs

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9
Q

Terminal bronchioles:

A

air enters the respiratory bronchioles from these structures, which are the narrowest of the airways that do not have alveoli and do not contribute to gas exchange. Terminal bronchioles receive air from larger airways, which are formed from successive branching of the right and left primary bronchi.

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10
Q

Trachea:

A

the windpipe; continuous with the left and right primary bronchi and located in the neck in front of the esophagus

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11
Q

Pharynx:

A

air enters the trachea from the pharynx, which is the cavity behind the palate that receives the contents of both the oral and nasal passages.

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12
Q

Glottis:

A

in order for air to enter or leave the trachea & lungs, it must pass through a valve-like opening called the glottis between the vocal folds

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13
Q

Larynx:

A

voice box, which guards the entrance to the trachea

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14
Q

Diaphragm:

A

dome-shaped sheet of striated muscle that divides the anterior body cavity into two parts: the abdominopelvic cavity and the thoracic cavity.

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15
Q

Parietal pleura:

A

the superficial layer; lines the inside of the thoracic wall.

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16
Q

Visceral pleura:

A

the deep layer; covers the surface of the lungs.

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17
Q

Intrapleural space:

A

space between the visceral and parietal pleura that contains only a thin layer of serous fluid, secreted by the parietal pleura; only becomes a “real” space under abnormal conditions.

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18
Q

Intrapulmonary/intra-alveolar pressure:

A

air enters the lungs during inspiration because the atmospheric pressure is greater than the intrapulmonary pressure. A pressure below the atmospheric pressure is called a subatmospheric, or negative pressure. Expiration occurs when the intrapulmonary pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure.

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19
Q

Intrapleural pressure:

A

because of the elastic tension of the lungs and the thoracic wall on each other, the lungs pull in 1 direction (they “try” to collapse) while the thoracic wall pulls in the opposite direction (it “tries” to expand). The opposing elastic recoil of the lungs and the chest wall produces a subatmospheric pressure in the intrapleural space that is called the intrapleural pressure. It is normally lower than the intrapulmonary pressure during both inspiration and expiration.

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20
Q

Transpulmonary (transmural) pressure:

A

the pressure difference across the wall of the lungs, which is the difference between the intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures. The difference in pressure keeps the lungs against the chest wall.

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21
Q

Compliance:

A

a measure of distensibility.

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22
Q

Elasticity:

A

tendency of a structure to return to its original size after being distended.

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23
Q

Surface tension:

A

the forces that act to resist distension include elastic resistance and the surface tension that is exerted by fluid in the alveoli; contributes to recoil.

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24
Q

Pulmonary surfactant:

A

secreted into the alveoli by type II alveolar cells, this alveolar fluid reduces surface tension. Consists of phospholipids and hydrophobic surfactant proteins. Prevents the alveoli from collapsing during expiration.

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25
Q

Respiratory distress syndrome:

A

premature babies are sometimes born with lungs that lack sufficient surfactant and their alveoli are collapsed as a result. Can be assessed by analysis of amniotic fluid, and mothers can be given exogenous corticosteroids to accelerate the maturation of their fetus’s lungs.

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26
Q

Pneumothorax:

A

the presence of air or gas in the cavity between the lungs and the chest wall (intrapleural space), causing collapse of the lung.

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27
Q

Inspiratory muscles:

A

diaphragm and external intercostals; active.

28
Q

Expiratory muscles:

A

abdominals (External, internal, oblique, transversus, rectus) and internal intercostals.

29
Q

Normal quiet breathing (inspiration): contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles increases the thoracic and lung volume, decreasing intrapulmonary pressure to about -3 mmHg.

A

contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles increases the thoracic and lung volume, decreasing intrapulmonary pressure to about -3 mmHg.

30
Q

Normal quiet breathing (Expiration):

A

relaxation of the diaphragm and external intercostals, plus elastic recoil of lungs, decreases lung volume and increase intrapulmonary pressure to about +3 mmHg.

31
Q

During inspiration….

A

the intrapulmonary pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure, and during expiration it is greater than the atmospheric pressure. The intrapleural pressure is normally always lower than the intrapulmonary pressure, so that the difference between the two (transpulmonary pressure) keeps the lungs stuck to the thoracic wall.

32
Q

Tidal volume:

A

the volume of gas inspired or expired in an unforced respiratory cycle; approx.. 500 mL

33
Q

Residual volume:

A

the volume of gas remaining in the lungs after maximum expiration; approximately 1L.

34
Q

Vital capacity:

A

the maximum amount of gas that can be expired after a maximum inspiration; approx. 6L

35
Q

Expiratory reserve volume:

A

the max. volume of gas that can be expired during forced breathing in addition to the vital capacity.

36
Q

Inspiratory reserve volume:

A

the max. volume of gas that can be inspired during forced breathing in addition to the vital capacity.

37
Q

Functional residual capacity (FRC):

A

the amount of gas remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal expiration. The residual volume + expiratory reserve.

38
Q

Total lung capacity:

A

the total amount of gas in the lungs after a maximum inspiration.

39
Q

Total minute volume:

A

multiplying the tidal volume at rest by the number of breaths per minute yields a total minute volume (V) of about 6L per minute

40
Q

Dyspnea:

A

difficult/labored breathing

41
Q

Eupnea:

A

normal/quiet breathing

42
Q

Apnea:

A

cessation of breathing

43
Q

Hyperventilation:

A

ventilation that is too high/excessive in relation to metabolic rate; results in low carbon dioxide.

44
Q

Hypoventilation:

A

ventilation that is too low in relation to metabolic rate; results in high carbon dioxide.

45
Q

Asthma:

A

obstructive disease where smooth muscle reacts to the environment; bronchoconstriction, inflammation and mucous secretion occur, making it hard to breathe.

46
Q

Emphysema:

A

obstructive disease where air cannot get out due to the destruction of lung tissue that results in fewer and larger alveoli; loss of elasticity.

47
Q

Restrictive disorders:

A

the vital capacity is reduced to below normal, but the rate at which the vital capacity can be forcibly exhaled is normal (e.g., pulmonary fibrosis).

48
Q

Obstructive disorders:

A

the vital capacity is normal, but expiration is more difficult and takes a longer time (e.g., asthma).

49
Q

What are the normal values for each of the following (be sure to include the units)

A 
Tidal Volume: 500 mL
Number of breaths per minute: 12
Minute volume: 6L/minute
Alveolar volume: 350 mL
Alveolar minute volume: 4200 mL/minute
Volume of the “dead space”: 150 mL
50
Q

What do we mean by the term “partial pressure”?

A

The pressure that a particular gas in a mixture exerts independently is the partial pressure of that gas, which is equal to the product of the total pressure and the fraction of that gas in the mixture.

51
Q

What are the units of partial pressure?

A

mmHg.

52
Q

Give the units of partial pressure for each of the following:

A

Oxygen CO2
alveoli: 105 40
arterial blood: 100 40
mixed venous blood: 40 46

53
Q

Where are the Respiratory Centers located?

A

The medulla oblongata (rhythmicity), and the pons (pnuemotaxic and apneustic).

54
Q

Where are the “peripheral chemoreceptors” located? What do they respond to?

A
  1. The peripheral chemoreceptors are contained within small nodules associated with the aorta and the carotid arteries and they receive blood from these critical arteries via small arterial branches. They include the aortic bodies, located around the aortic arch, and the carotid bodies, located in each common carotid artery at the point where it branches into the internal and external carotid arteries.
  2. Large decreases in the partial pressure of oxygen (PO2 falls to 60) or large increases in carbon dioxide partial pressure.
55
Q

Where are the “central chemoreceptors” located? What do they respond to?

A

Anterior surface of the medulla. Monitoring the PCO2 of the arterial blood.

56
Q

What effect do these two sets of chemoreceptors have on ventilation?

A
  1. The lower pH of the interstitial fluid surrounding the central chemoreceptors stimulates the chemoreceptors to increase ventilation when there is a rise in the arterial PCO2.
  2. The immediate increase in ventilation that occurs when PCO2 rises is produced by stimulation of the peripheral chemoreceptors. The retention of CO2 during hypoventilation rapidly stimulates the peripheral chemoreceptors through a lowering of blood pH.
57
Q

Be able to describe the chemical composition of hemoglobin. What is carboxyhemoglobin?

A
  1. Each hemoglobin molecules consists of four polypeptide chains called globins and four iron-containing, disc-shaped organic pigment molecules called hemes. Each hemoglobin molecule can carry four oxygen molecules.
  2. Carboxyhemoglobin: an abnormal form of hemoglobin where the reduced heme is combined with carbon monoxide instead of oxygen. Indication of carbon monoxide poisoning.
58
Q

How many ml of oxygen are there normally in each 100ml of arterial and venous blood?

A

20 ml of O2 / 100 ml

59
Q

Be able to draw a fairly accurate “oxyhemoglobin dissociation” curve.

A
  1. Figures 16.33 and 16.34.
  2. A shift to the right of the curve indicates a greater unloading of oxygen; a shift to the left indicates less unloading but slightly more oxygen loading in the lungs.
60
Q

Know what the “Bohr Effect” is and its significance.

A
  1. The Bohr Effect: the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is decreased when the pH is lowered and increased when the pH is raised. The tissues receive more oxygen when the blood pH is lowered.
  2. The Bohr Effect helps to provide more oxygen to the tissues when their carbon dioxide output is increased by a faster metabolism.
61
Q

What is myoglobin?

A

Myoglobin is a red pigment found exclusively in striated muscle cells. Myoglobin has one heme rather than four hemes; therefore it can only combine with one molecule of oxygen.

62
Q

transport of carbon dioxide in the blood.

5 Ways

A
  1. Carbon dioxide is transported in three forms:
    a. As dissolved CO2 in the plasma (10%)
    b. Attached to hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin (20%)
    c. As carbonic acid and bicarbonate (70%).
  2. Red blood cells contain an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase that catalyzes the reversible reaction whereby carbon dioxide and water are used to form carbonic acid.
  3. This reaction is favored by the high PCO2 in the tissue capillaries, and as result, carbon dioxide produced by the tissues is converted into carbonic acid in the red blood cells.
  4. Carbonic acid then ionizes to form H+ and HCO3– (bicarbonate).
  5. Because of much of the H+ is buffered by hemoglobin but more bicarbonate is free to diffuse outward, an electrical gradient is established that draws Cl- into the red blood cells. This is called the chloride shift.
63
Q

In what form is most of the carbon dioxide carried in the blood?

A

Bicarbonate (HCO3–), which is released when carbonic acid dissociates.

64
Q

What is the “Chloride Shift”?

A

CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3–
As a result of the trapping of hydrogen ions ithin the red blood cells by their attachment to hemoglobin and the outward diffusion of bicarbonate, the inside of the red blood cell gains a net positive charge. This attracts chloride ions (Cl-), which move into the red blood cells as HCO3– moves out. This exchange of anions as blood travels through the tissue capillaries is called the chloride shift.

65
Q

Blood pH =

A
  1. 4 + 0.05
  2. 2 = acidosis
  3. 6 = alkalosis
66
Q

Henderson-Hasselbach equation:

A

pH = 6.1 + log [HCO3–]Gas exchange in the lungs –

PSY Exam 4 Prep Folder (4 decks)

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