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Neuropsychology > Chapter 16 > Flashcards

Chapter 16 Flashcards

1
Q

Summary theories of emotion

A
  • Emotions are multi-faceted
  • What is first: bodily changes (James-Lange) or emotion itself (Cannon-Bard)
  • Many regions work together to produce emotions, including the subcortical Papez circuit (incl. hypothalamus), hippocampus, thalamus (anterior nucleus), cingulate cortex, and limbic brain.
  • Basic emotion categories (Ekman) versus constructive view of emotions being derived from core processes (e.g., autonomic reactions) & dimensions such as valence (from negative to positive) & arousal
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2
Q

Amygdala & Fear Conditioning

A

Basic Paradigm
auditory tone (neutral stimulus, CS-) + fear evoking stimulus ( e.g. electric shock; unconditioned stimulus that elicits unconditioned response) = tone will come to elicit a fear response by itself (it becomes a conditioned stimulus, CS+)

Results from Mice Studies
- Lesions of amygdala disrupt fear conditioning
- Lesions of amygdala after conditioning also disrupt storage of response
- Lesions do not disrupt fear response to shocks (i.e. involved in learning association between shock and neutral stimulus)

In Humans:
- fMRI shows amygdala activity for CS+ stimuli relative to CS- and this correlates with amount of skin conductance response (SCR) Le Bar et al (1998)
- Similar pattern when humans watch the shock being given to someone else (i.e. socially learned fear conditioning) (Olsson & Phelps, 2004)
- Patients with lesions to amygdala fail to show an SCR to a CS+ but can - verbally report the association (amnesic patients with hippocampal damage show the reverse) Bechara et al. (1995)

  • Amygdala damage in humans impairs fear expression recognition in faces and (sometimes) voices but not other types of emotion (e.g. Adolphs et al. 1994)
  • Fear expressions activate the amygdala during fMRI more than other expressions
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3
Q

Fear: Beyond the Amygdala

A
  • Fast and slow routes to the amygdala from sensory cortices (Le Doux)
  • Fear may lead to enhanced visual cortex activity, as well as activity in regions such as hypothalamus and anterior cingulate (involved in preparing bodily responses), and orbitofrontal cortex (evaluating context)
  • i.e. fear circuit with amygdala as a hub
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4
Q

The Amygdala: Beyond Fear

A
  • Animal studies show involvement in reward-based learning, but mechanisms/regions may be different from that in fear conditioning (Baxter & Murray, 2002)
  • fMRI shows amygdala activity for emotionally intense stimuli (pictures, tastes, smells, sounds) relative to neutral ones irrespective of whether positive/negative
  • Response to happy faces in fMRI greater for extravert personalities (happy faces more intense for these people?)
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5
Q

Amygdala: Summary

A

Convincing evidence for role of amygdala in fear, but also clear role of amygdala in coding of emotional intensity and certain aspects of reward learning

Other areas are also involved in fear

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6
Q

Insula & Recognition of Disgust

A
  • Insula damage in humans impairs disgust recognition in faces and (sometimes) voices but not other types of emotion
  • Seeing disgust expressions activates the insula during fMRI as does feeling disgusted
  • Some researchers argue that moral disgust may piggy-back on mechanisms involved in contamination-based disgust
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7
Q

Insula: Beyond Disgust

A

Involved in bodily perception and bodily feelings in general

Important for taste perception, pain perception

May monitor for bodily feelings (e.g. heart rate, sweating) which are important markers of emotion and may amplify the subjective feelings of an emotion

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8
Q

Basic Emotions: Overview

A

Different neural circuits with relative degrees of specialisation for different emotions, but also lots of overlap between emotion categories.

The properties of this overlap are in line with constructive view (reconciliation?)

Some widely distributed in brain (e.g. Happiness) others less so (e.g. Fear, disgust)

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9
Q

Orbitofrontal cortex & Reward Values

A
  • Small et al. (2001) PET study of eating chocolate
    • Initially = wanted and pleasant
    • After excessive consumption = not-wanted and unpleasant
    • Activity in OFC follows this transition (shift from medial to lateral activity)
  • Blood & Zatorre (2001)
    • subjective pleasantness of music correlates with OFC activity
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10
Q

OFC & Current Reward Values

A
  • Computing the current reward value gives behavioural flexibility
  • Patients with lesions to the OFC lose this flexibility and they behave impulsively
    • Rudebeck et al. (2006) lesioned OFC rats prefer small immediate rewards over larger rewards offered later
    • Human patients fail to regulate behaviour using social norms, have inappropriate emotional responses, and poor social relationships
      * Rolls et al. (2004) patients fail to shift away from a previously rewarded stimulus that is no longer rewarded
    • Bechara et al. (1994) patients take higher risk gambles
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11
Q

Ventral Striatum and Reward

A
  • Part of dopaminergic system, in particular nucleus accumbens.
  • Increased dopamine release when presented with secondary reinforcers paired with food, or when male rats ‘presented’ with a female
  • In humans, implicated in hedonic aspects of drug use (e.g. cocaine)
  • In human fMRI, activity in ventral striatum correlates with level of potential monetary reward
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12
Q

Reward or Reward Prediction?

A

These neurons code the difference between the predicted reward and actual reward, rather than reward itself.

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13
Q

Anterior Cingulate Cortex

A

Has often been divided into dorsal (‘cognitive’) and ventral (‘affective’) regions

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14
Q

How ‘Cognitive’ is the (Dorsal) ACC?

A

Cf. “The Executive Brain”: Dorsal ACC detects errors & response conflict.

Rushworth et al. (2007): (dorsal) ACC computes the current value of actions, whereas orbital FC computes current value of stimuli

(Dorsal) ACC also involved in generating bodily responses that characterize emotions

Involved in perception of physical pain and in ‘social pain’ triggered by exclusion

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15
Q

Reading Faces

A

Faces are not only a visual, but also a social object

Bruce & Young (1986): division between facial identity, expression recognition and gaze processing

Haxby et al. (2000): division between time-invariant (identity) and time-varying (expression, gaze)

BUT, expression recognition seems to depend on integrity of ‘emotional brain’ (amygdala, insula, OFC, etc) and be separate from gaze

Also a role for sensory-motor simulation, e.g….

Related to resonance theory & embodied cognition

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16
Q

What is the Role of Somatic Responses in Face Recognition?

A

Capgras syndrome: the patient had stated on numerous occasions that her 9-year-old daughter had been placed under custody and was replaced by an imposter. On occasion, she had shown up at her daughter’s school, refusing to pick her up, screaming: “Give me my real daughter!”

An emotional response (e.g., skin conductance) may normally be used to decide whether a person is familiar or not

Capgras delusion =
believe that familiar people are imposters (but can recognize the familiar person)

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17
Q

Reading minds

A

Our thoughts, feelings and intentions are private and subjective

Nevertheless, humans may have evolved skills that enable us to infer what others are thinking, feeling, etc. from their behavior

E.g. the expression on their face, where they are looking, or by projecting how we might feel in that situation

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18
Q

Empathy and Simulation Theory

A

Simulation theory = assumes sharing of cognitive resources between action/emotion perception and action/emotion production

Extension of the mirror neuron idea, and of the results with face expression

This may enable us to empathize with others

When we see someone hurt or happy we (literally) feel our own experiences of hurt or happiness that enable us to empathize

Watching somebody in pain activates insula and ACC

System is modulated if the other person is perceived to deserve the pain!

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19
Q

Is Simulation Enough? False Belief and “Theory of Mind”

A

Simulation may be important but not clear it can account for all mind-reading, such as in false belief.

In false belief situations, we can understand that another person holds a belief that is different from our own and, indeed, is different from the present state of reality

In this instance, the content of our own minds differs from that of other people

This may require a form of meta-representation termed “theory of mind” (i.e. an understanding that other people have mental states that may differ from one’s own and from the true state of the world)

20
Q

Neural Basis of Theory of Mind

A
  • Temporoparietal junction (TPJ):
    * Acquired lesions in this area disrupt performance in false-belief tasks, and also activated in such tasks in fMRI
    * Also important for detecting other agents (e.g. biological motion)
  • Temporal poles: semantic schemas that specify current social & emotional context
    * Castelli et al. (2000) fMRI of animated triangles (e.g. “chasing”, “encouraging”)
  • Medial frontal lobe: attending to internal states (e.g. intentions of self and other)?
    * Active in all fMRI studies of mentalizing (e.g. playing a game requiring cooperation or competition with another player)
21
Q

Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

A

Children with ASD often not good in false belief tasks

Defined as:
* Markedly abnormal development/impairment in social interaction and communication
* Markedly restricted repertoire of interests and activities

Developmental condition with first symptoms noted before 3 years and persisting throughout life

22
Q

Accounts of Autism

A

Problems with the specialized theory of mind mechanism

Broken-mirror theory (problem with simulation)

Deficit in theory of mind is just one symptom of a wider change in processing style
* Weak central coherence (i.e. global vs. local processing)
* Systemizing versus empathizing (male brain hypothesis)
* Executive function failure
* Predictive coding

23
Q

Neural basis of autism: contrast of the three hypotheses

A

Representations elicited by observation of social touch, analyzed in three sets of brain regions:

1) Perceptual areas (processing 
         style?)

2) TPJ theory of mind region

3) Somatosensory regions 
     (broken mirror; simulation)

fMRI study by Lee Masson et al. with two groups: ASD & controls

75 touch actions, differing in:
* social nature (action involving person or object) and
* Arousal and valence

No group differences anywhere in:
- Representations of visual dimensions (e.g., motion processing)
- Representations of social nature (action to person or object)
- But what about the representation of emotional content?
* Measured by correlation between emotional similarity & similarity in brain response

24
Q

Emotion

A

A state associated with stimuli that are rewarding or punishing.

25
Q

Mentalizing

A

The process of inferring or attributing mental states to others.

26
Q

Mirroring

A

The process of sharing the emotions or mental states of others.

27
Q

Mood

A

An emotional state that is extended over time.

28
Q

Expression

A

External motor outcomes in the face and body associated with emotional states.

29
Q

James-Lange theory

A

The self-perception of bodily changes produces emotional experience.

30
Q

Cannon-Bard theory

A

Theory centered on the hypothalamus role in emotions in which bodily responses occur after the emotion itself.

31
Q

Papez circuit

A

A limbic-based circuit that was once thought to constitute a largely undifferentiated emotional brain.

32
Q

Basic emotions

A

Different categories of emotions assumed to be independent of culture and with their own biological basis.

33
Q

Moral emotions

A

Emotions that are related to behavior of oneself or the behavior of others.

34
Q

Kluver-Bucy syndrome

A

In monkeys after bilateral amygdala and temporal lesions, an unusual tameness and emotional blunting, a tendency to examine objects with the mouth; and dietary changes.

35
Q

Skin conductance response (SCR)

A

Changes in electrical conductivity on a person’s skin, triggered by certain stimuli.

36
Q

Interoception

A

A sensory system for monitoring the internal state of the body.

37
Q

Extinction learning

A

Learning that a previously rewarded stimulus is no longer rewarded.

38
Q

Conspecific

A

Other members of the same species.

39
Q

Simulation theory

A

The theory that we come to understand other by vicariously producing their current state in ourselves.

40
Q

Social referrencing

A

The emotional response of another person may lead to avoidance or interaction with a previously neural stimulus.

41
Q

Capgras syndrome

A

People report that their acquaintances have been replaced by body doubles.

42
Q

Theory of mind

A

The ability to represent mental states of others.

43
Q

Empathy

A

The ability to appreciate others points of view and share their experiences.

44
Q

Mirror systems

A

Neural circuits or regions that disregard the distinction between self and other.

45
Q

False belief

A

A belief that differs from one’s own belief and that differs from the true state of the world.

46
Q

Broken-mirror theory

A

An account of autism in which the social difficulties are considered as a consequence of mirror-system dysfunction.

47
Q

Mu oscillations

A

EEG oscillations at 8-13 Hz over the sensorimotor cortex that are greatest when participants are at rest.

Neuropsychology (17 decks)

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