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Essentials Of Anatomy and Physiology > Chapter 15 - The Respiratory System > Flashcards

Chapter 15 - The Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

What is the general function of the respiratory system?

A

Concerned with what we think of as breathing: moving air into and out of the lungs.

  • Lungs are sit of exchange of O2 and CO2 between the air and blood
  • All cells must obtain oxygen to carry out cell respiration to produce ATP.
  • Essential for transport of gases in the blood.
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2
Q

Name the Main divisions of the Respiratory system

A

1) The upper respiratory tract - The air passages of the nose, nasal cavities, pharnx , larynx and upper trachea.
2) The lower respiratory tract - the lower trachea and the lungs (inc bronchial tubes and alveoli)
- Pleural membranes and respiratory muscles that form the chest cavity (diaphragm and intercostal muscles) are also part the respiratory system.

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3
Q

Describe the two nasal cavities

A
  • Separated by the nasal septum (bony plate)
  • The nasal mucosa (lining) - ciliated epithelium, with goblet cells that produce mucus.
  • As air passes through the cavities, it picks up heat and mositure from the nasal mucosa. Air that reaches the lungs is warmed almost to body temperature and has 100% humidity - important to prevent drying of alveoli
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4
Q

What are conchae

A

3 shelf-like bones project from the lateral wall of each nasal cavity - they increase the surface are of the nasal mucosa

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5
Q

What are olfactory receptors?

A

Detect vaporized chemicals that have been inhaled.

-Olfactory nerves pass through tehe eethmoid bone to the brain

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6
Q

What are paransal sinuses?

A

air cavities in the maxillae, frontal, sphenoid and ethmoid bones

  • Lined with ciliated epithelium
  • they lighten the skull and provide resonance for the voice.
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7
Q

What is the Pharynx?

A

Muscular tube posterior to the nasal and oral cavities and anterior to the cervical vertebrae.

  • 3 main parts
    1) nasopharynx
    2) oropharynx
    3) laryngopharynx
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8
Q

What is the nasopharynx?

A

uppermost portion of the pharynx.

  • Soft palate is elevated during swallowing to block the nasopharynx and prevent food/saliva from going up.
  • uvula is part of the soft palate.
  • Contains adenoid tonsil, a lymph nodule that contain macrophages.
  • contains 2 eustachian tubes - which extend to the middle ear cavities - they permit air to enter or leave the middle ears (allowing dear drums to vibrate properly.
  • A passageway for air only.
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9
Q

What is the oropharynx?

A

Located behind the mouth; its mucosa is tratified squamous epithelium

  • Also has lymph nodules.
  • Works with adenoid and lingual tonsils on base of tongue to form a ring of lymphastic tissues around the pharnx to destroy pathogens.
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10
Q

What is the laryngopharnx?

A

Most inferior portion of the pharnyx.

-Contraction of muscular wall of the oropharynx and laryngopharnx is part of swallowing reflex.

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11
Q

What is the Larynx

A

Voice box - for speaking

  • also is an air passage way between the pharynx and trachea.
  • Made of 9 pieces of cartilage (largest being thyroid cartilage)
  • Epiglottis is uppermost cartilage - closes over top of the larynx when swallowing to prevent saliva/food into larynx.
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12
Q

Describe the strucxture of the vocal cords

A

On either side of the glottis (c

  • When breathing, held at the sides of the glottis, so air passes freely intout and out of the trachea
  • intrinsic muscles of larynx pull the vocal cords across the glottis when speaking, exhaled air vibrates teh vocal cords to produce sounds that can be turned into speech.
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13
Q

Define the trachea

A

4-5 inches long, extends from the larynx to the primary bronchi, anterior to the esophagus.

  • contains 16-20 C-shaped pieces of cartilage which keep it open
  • Mucosa is ciliated epithelium with goblet cells.
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14
Q

What are the primary bronchi?

A

The branches of the trachea that enter the lungs.
-C-shaped cartilages and ciliated epithelium.
0Branches into secondary bronchi within the lobes of each lung - further branching of the bronchial tubes is the bronchial tree.

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15
Q

What are bronchioles?

A

Smaller branches of the broncihial tree (no cartilage present)
-Smallest bronchioles terminate in clusters of alveoli

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16
Q

What is the upper respiratory microbiome?

A
  • Constantly exposed to whatever is airbrornei n external environment
  • This microbiome is always windy (air coming in or going out)
  • Usually slightly cooler then body temperature.
  • Continuous sweeping - cilia of epithelial lining cells sweep mucus toward the pharynx to be swalled.
  • Bacterial infections of nasal passenges do occur, but less common after childhood
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17
Q

What is asthma?

A

inflammation of the bronchial tree - usual ly triggered by an infection or allergic reaction that affects the smooth muscle and glands of the bronchioles.

  • Smooth muscle of the bronchioles constricts.
  • Chronic asthma is a predisposing factor for emphysema
  • Asthma attack can be prevented with medication that blocks the release of IgE antibodies.
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18
Q

Describe the structure of the lungs

A

Located on either side of the heart in the chest cavity, encircled and protected by the rib cage.
-Rests on the diaphragm below

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19
Q

What is the Hilus?

A

Located on the medial surface of each lung, it is an indentation where the primary bronchus and pulmonary artery and veins enter the lung

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20
Q

What are the pleural membranes

A

Serous membranes of the thoracic cavity

  • Parietal pleura lines the chest wall
  • Visceral pleura is on the surface of the lungs
  • Serous fluid is between the membranes, prevens friction and keeps them together during breathing
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21
Q

What are Alveoli?

A

The functional units of the lungs - Air sacs.

  • Millions in each lung (total surface area estimated to be 700-800 square feet
  • This surface area available for exchange of O2 and CO2
  • Alveolar type 1 cells - simple sqwuamous epithelium
  • Contain elastin fibers that contribute to exhallation
  • Surrounded by network of pulmonary capillaries
  • Contain wandering macrophages that phagocytize pathogens
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22
Q

What is pulmonary surfactant

A

A lipoprotein secreted by alevolar type II cells - Surfacnt mixes with the tissues fluid within the alveoli and decreases its surface tension, permitting inflation of the alveoli.

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23
Q

Respiratory distress syndrome

A

A designation for a hypoxemia that is difficult to correct and encompasses two major types based on age of onset: shortly after birth or later in life

24
Q

What is hyaline membrane disease?

A

A respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn - also affects premature infants whose lungs have not yet produced sufficient quantities of pulmonary surfactant.

  • Lack of surfactant causes the surface tension of the tissue fluid lining the alveoli causes the air sacs to collapse after each breath (rather than remain inflated)
  • Results in hypoxemia
  • May require respiratory assistance until their lungs are muature enough to produce surfacant.
  • Use of synthetic surfactant can help.
25
Q

What is Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)

A

Occurrence of respiratory distress syndrome (like hyaline membrane disease) later in life

  • -Risk factors pneumonia, trauma, injuries to chest, burns, smoke inhalation.
  • Results in alveolar damage, hyaline membrane formation, edema
  • Tx must include tx of underlying cause.
26
Q

Describe the mechanism of breathing

A

Ventilation - the movement of air to and from the alveoli

  • Inhalation and exhalation - brought about by nervous system and respiratory muscles
  • Respiratory center located in the medulla and pons.
  • Diaphragm contracts–> external intercostal muscles pull the ribs apart upward and outwards –> internal intercostal muscles pull the ribs downward and inward. –>ventilation is the result.
27
Q

What are the 3 types of pressure (in respect to breathing)?

A

1) Atmospheric pressure - the pressure of the air around us (at sea level - 760 mm Hg)
2) Intrapleural pressure - The pressure within the potential pleural space between the pareital pleura and the visceral pleura. (always slightly below atmospheric pressure (~756 mm Hg) - called negative pressure
3) Intrapulmonic pressure - the pressure within the bronchial tree and alveoli. Fluctuates below and above atmospheric pressure during breathing.

28
Q

What is the process of inhalation?

A

Motor impulses from medula travel along phrenic nerves to the diaphragm and along intercostal nerves to the external intercostal muscles –>diaphragm contracts, expands chest cavity–>external intercostal muscles pull ribs up and out, expands chest cavity from side to side and front to back–>With chest cavity expanded, parietal pleuira expand –?Intrapleural pressure become more negative, suction is created between the pleural membranes –>adhesion created by serous fluid–> as lungs expand, intrapulmonic pressure falls below atmospheric pressure, air enters the nose, travels through the respiratory passages to the alveoli

29
Q

What is pneumothorax?

A

The presence of air in the pleural space, which causes collapse of the lung on that side..

  • Happens when air at atmospheric pressure enters the pleural cavity, contributing to collapse.
  • Can be caused by pulmonary diseases (emphasyema) that weaken aveloi or puncture wounds to the chest
30
Q

Describe the process of exhalation

A

Impulses from medulla decrease and diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax–>chest cavity becomes smaller, lungs are compressed, elastic tissue recoils and compresses the alveoli–>intrapulmonic pressure rises above atmospheric pressure, air is forced out of lungs until the two pressure are equal.

31
Q

What is emphysema?

A

A form of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD_)
-degenerative disease in which the aveoli lose their elasticity and cannot recoil
-Cause by smoking, long term exposure to severe air pollution, chronic asthma, chronic bronchitis
0damaged lung tissue is replaced by fibrous connective tissues, further limits diffusion of gases.

32
Q

What are the 6 pulmonary volumes?

A
  • capacity of lungs varies with size and age
    1) Tidal volume -amount of air involved in one nml inhalation and exhalation (average 500ml)
    2) Minute respiratory volume (MRV) - amount of air inhaled and exhaled in 1 min.
    3) Inspiratory reserve - amount of air, beyond tidal volume, that can be taken in the deepest possible inhalation (2000-3000ml)
    4) Expiratory reserve - the amount of air, beydond tidal volume, that can be expelled with the most forceful exhalation (1000-1500ml)
    5) Vital capacity - the sum of tidal volume, inspiratory reserve and expiratory reserve. Amount of air involved in the deepest inhalation followed by the most forceful exhalation (3500-5000ml)
    6) Residual air (volume) - amount of air that remains in lungs after the most forceful exhalation (1000-15000ml) Important to insure there is some air in the lungs atr all times.
33
Q

What is the Heimlich maneuver?

A

Technique to dislodge foreign object in the pharynx or larynx, to be removed.
-Stand behind choking victim, one hand forms fist placed between navel and rib cage, other hand covers the fist,quick forceful upward thrust is made and repeated if necessary. The forcefully expelled air is often sufficient to dislodge the foreign object.

34
Q

What are some types of measurements that assess pulmonary volumes

A

1) Spirometers (measure movement of air)
2) Forced expiatory volume (FEV) - deep inhalation, rapid exhalation, volume determined at 1,2 and 3 seconds - widespread damage will decrease the FEV
3) alveolar ventilation - the amount of air that actually reached the alveoli and participates in gas exchange (remaining air not in aveloi at end of inhalation is anatomic dead space)

35
Q

What is physiological dead space?

A

not normal - the volume of non-functioning alveoli that decrease gas exchange. Caused by bronchitis, pneumonia, TB, emphysema, asthma, pulmonary edema, collapsed lung.

36
Q

What is Compliance (pulmonary volume)

A

The expansibility of the thoracic wall and lungs is necessary for sufficient alvelor ventilation.

  • Thoracic compliance may be decreased by pleurisy or fractured ribs, which make inhalation painful, or scoliosis or ascites
  • Lung compliance, will decrease by any condition that increases physiological dead space.
37
Q

How does gas exchange work?

A

2 sites of exchange of O2 and CO2 - the lungs and the tissues of the body.

38
Q

What is external respiration

A

Exchange of gases between the air in aveoli and the blood tin the pulmonary capillaries
-External meaning the exchange the involves air from the external environment

39
Q

What is Internal respiration?

A

The exchange of gases between the blood in the systemic capillaries and the tissue fluid of the body.

40
Q

How does diffusion of gases work?

A

Gas will diffuse from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser concentration
0Expressed in value called parital pressure, measured in mm Hg - the pressure it exerts within a mixture of gases
-Disorders of gas exchange often involve the lungs - external respiration

41
Q

What is pulmonary edema?

A

The accumulation of fluid in the alveoli

  • Consequence of congestive heart failure in which the left side of the heart (or entire heart) is not pumping efficiently.
  • Causes blood flow to be congested and backs up in the pulmonary veins/capillaries. BP increases in te pulmonary capillaries, filtration creates tissue fluid/
  • Fluid filled alveoli no longer sites of efficient gas exchanged, resulting in hypoxia. Sx of dyspepsia and increased respiratory rate.
  • TX by restoring pumping ability of the heart to nml
42
Q

What is pneummonia?

A

an infection of the lungs

  • Streptococcus pnemonaie is most common type - causes at least 500K cases of pneumonia yearly in US (50K deaths)
  • usually occur in elderly people following a primary infection (influenza) or the very young
  • Bacteria establish themselves in the alveoli - aveloar cells secrete fluid that accumulates in the air sacs, the alveoli become filled with fluid, bacteria nad neutrophils, decreasing gas exchange.
  • Pneomovax is a vaccine for this type of pnemonia. Recommended for people over 60
43
Q

Describe the transport of Ocygenin the blood

A

O2 carried by Hb in RBCs - O2-Hb bond is formed in the lungs where PO2 is high., when blood passes through tissues with low PO2, the bond breaks and O2 is released in to the tissues.

44
Q

Descriobe the transport of carbon dioxide

A

Some CO2 is dissolved in plasma, some is carried by Hb )20% of total Co2 transport)

  • When Co@ enters the blood, most diffuses into RBCs, which contain the enzyme carbonic anhydrase. This catalyzes the reaction of Co@ and water to form carbonic acid.
  • Co2 is in the plasma as part of HCo3 ions. When blood reaches the lungs, and area of lower PCO2, these reactions are reversed and CO2 is re-formed and diffuses into the alveoli to be exhaled.
45
Q

What is Carbon monoxide?

A

Colorless, odorless gass that is produced udring combustion of fuels.

  • Toxic, forms strong and stable bond with Hb in RBCs - dramatically decreases the amount of O2 carried in blood. as little as 0.1% CO in inhaled air can saturate half the total Hb with CO.
  • Person with CO poisoning is in a severely hypoxic state.
  • Sx headache and dizziness, SOB, confusion and nausea.
  • Tx of CO poisoning may require hyperbaric chamber, in which a person breathes O2 under pressure.
46
Q

What are the 2 mechanisms that regulate respiration

A

1) Nervous mechanisms

2) Chemical mechanisms

47
Q

Describe nervous regulation

A

Respiratory centers located in the medulla and pons (parts of the brain stem)

  • Inspiration center (in medulla)
  • Expiration center (in medulla)
  • Apneustic center - prolongs inhalation
  • Pnemotaxic center- contributes to exhalation
  • Hypothalamus modify output from the medulla in emotional sitautions (scared)
  • Cerebral cortex enables us to voluntarily change our breathing rate
  • Coughing and sneezing are reflex that remove irrtant from respiratory passage - Muddle contains these centers.
48
Q

What is the Inspiration center?

A

(in medulla) automatically generates impulses in rhythmic spurts –>impulses travel along nerves to respiratory muscles to stimulate contraction. With inhalation, baroreceptors in the lung tissue detect stretching and generator impulses to the medulla to depress the inspiration center. (Hering-Breuer inflation reflex)

49
Q

What is the Expiration center?

A

(in medulla) - generates impulses to the internal intercostal and abdominal muscle

50
Q

What is chemical regulation?

A

The effect on breathing of blood pH and blod levels of O2 and CO2
-Chemoreceptors detect change in blood gases and Ph - located in the carotid and aortic bodies of the medulla.

51
Q

What is respiratorry acidosis

A

When the rate or efficiency of respiration decreases, permitting CO2 to accumulate in body fluids

52
Q

What is Respiratory alkalosis

A

When the rate of respiration increases, CO2 is rapidly exhaled, less CO2 decreased H+ion formation, increases Ph.
-Breathing faster for a few mins can bring about mild state of respiratory alkalsosis.

53
Q

What is metabolic acidosis?

A

Caused by untreated DM (ketoacidosis), kidney disease or severe diarrhea - H+ ion concentration of body fluids is increased

54
Q

What is metabolic alkosis?

A

uncommon - caused by ingestion or excessive amount of alkaline medications - H+ ion concentration of body fluids is decreased.

55
Q

What is the effect of aging on the respiratory system?

A
  • Respiratory muscles weaken with age
  • Lung tissues loses elasticity and alveoli are lost as their walls deteriorate.
  • Systemic HTN weakens the left ventricle of the heart - can lead to congestive heart failure and pulmonary edema.

Essentials Of Anatomy and Physiology (6 decks)

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