Chapter 15 - Sampling & Data Collection in Qualitative Studies

Question 1

What is qualitative research concerned with?

Answer 1

1. measuring attributes
2. identifying relationships
   - ->discovering MEANING, need a representative sample
   - generalizability is NOT an issue

Question 2

Convenience Sampling

Answer 2

• volunteer sample
• ->recruit using bulletin board, newspaper, or internet
• want a diverse group who identify themselves (ex. people with nightmares)
• not preferred b/c may not provide the most information-rich sources
• economical to launch sampling process

Question 3

Snowball Sampling

Answer 3

• network sampling
• asking early informants to make referrals for other participants
• disadvantage: may recruit a small network of friends

Question 4

Purposive Sampling

Answer 4

–>researchers deliberately choose the cases/types of cases that will best contribute to the study

Question 5

Stratgies of purposive sampling

Answer 5

1. Maximum Variation Sampling: deliberately selecting cases with wide variation on dimensions of interest
   - ->BEST CHOICE - illuminates the scope of the phenomenon, shows patterns
2. Extreme (Deviant) Case Sampling: provides opportunities from the most unusual and extreme informants
3. Typical Case Sampling: selecting participants who illustrate or highlight what is typical/average
4. Criterion Sampling: studying cases that meet a predetermined criterion of importance

Question 6

Confirming vs. Disconfirming Cases

Answer 6

–>purposive strategy used at end of data collection

Confirming Cases: additional cases that fit researchers conceptualizations and strengthen credibility

Disconfirming Cases: new cases that do not fit and challenge researchers interpretations
-offer new insights into revisions of original conceptualization

Question 7

Theoretical Sampling

Answer 7

• used in grounded theory studies
• ->”what groups should the researcher turn to next?” in order to further the conceptualization

OBJECTIVE is to discover categories and their properties and to offer new insights into interrelationships that occur in the substantive theory

Question 8

Data saturation

Answer 8

sampling to the point at which no new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved
-broader scope of research question = more participants needed

Question 9

Sampling in Ethnography

Answer 9

“BIG NET” approach to begin - mingle with as many members of a culture as possible

• heavily rely on a few KEY INFORMANTS (highly knowledgable about culture - link to the “inside”)
• sampling THINGS as well as people (events, activities, records, artifacts, places)

Question 10

Sampling in Phenomenological Studies

Answer 10

SMALL sample of participants (10 or less), seek diversity

1. all participants must have experienced the phenomenon
2. be able to articulate what is like to have lived that experience

Interpretive phenomenologists may also sample artistic or literary sources -additional insight

Question 11

Sampling in Grounded Theory

Answer 11

Samples of 20-30 people (theoretical sampling)

• select informants who can best contribute to the evolving theory
• bring on more contributors as the study continues
• sample until saturation, then may use confirming/disconfirming cases

Question 12

Critiquing Sampling Plans

Answer 12

1. Adequacy: sufficiency/quality of data that the sample yielded, no “thin” spots
2. Appropriateness: concerns methods used to select the sample
   - results from the sample that best supplies information that meets study’s conceptual requirements (includes all kinds of information –> unusual cases)
3. Transferability: can it be applied to others in the same criteria?

Question 13

Data collection in Ethnography

Answer 13

Types: observation/interviews + artifacts

Units: cultural system

Points: mainly longitudinal

Length: LONG (months to years)

Issues: gaining entree, determining a role, loss of objectivity, premature exit

Question 14

Data collection in Phenomenology

Answer 14

Types: primarily in-depth interviews, some diaries/written materials

Units: individuals

Points: cross-sectional

Length: moderate

Issues: bracketing one’s views, building rapport, listening while preparing for what to ask next, handing emotions

Question 15

Data collection in Grounded Theory

Answer 15

Types: primarily individual interviews, some group interviews/observation/documents

Units: individuals

Points: cross-sectional or longitudinal

Length: moderate

Issues: building rapport, listing while preparing what to ask next, handling emotions

Question 16

Unstructured Interviews

Answer 16

used when researchers have no preconceived view of information to be gathered

• aim to learn about respondents perceptions/experiences
• ->start by asking a GRAND TOUR question: broad

Question 17

Structured (focused) Interviews

Answer 17

used when researchers have a list of topics/broad questions that MUST be covered in an interview
–>use a written TOPIC GUIDE to ensure all questions are addressed

Question 18

Focus Group Interviews

Answer 18

involved groups of 5-10 people whose opinions/experiences are solicited simultaneously

• can generate a lot of dialogue
• disadvantage: not everyone will feel comfortable sharing

Question 19

Personal Diaries

Answer 19

standard source of data in historical research

• provides an intimate description of a person’s everyday life
• unstructured

Question 20

Critical Incidents Technique

Answer 20

method of gathering information about peoples’ behaviors in specific circumstances

• focus on FACTUAL INCIDENT (an integral episode of human behavior) with a significant outcome
• 50-100 incidents are collected, but less people because one person can describe multiple incidents

Question 21

Photo elicitation

Answer 21

an interview stilted and guided by photographic images
-can promote collaborative discussion

PHOTOVOICE: participants take photos of themselves and then interpret them

Question 22

Participant Observation

Answer 22

• unstructured observational data
• participant observers take part in the functioning of the group under study –> asks questions, records info, observes
• social interaction and gain further insight

Question 23

Four phases of participant observation

Answer 23

1. Primarily observation and active listening
2. Primarily observation and limited participation
3. Primarily participation with continued observation
4. Primarily reflection and reconfirmation of findings with participants

Question 24

Relevant aspects of observation to record:

Answer 24

1. Physical setting - “where”
2. Participants - “who”
3. Activities - “what is going on”
4. Frequency and Duration - “when”
5. Process - “how is the activity organized”
6. Outcomes - “why”

Question 25

Recording Observations

Answer 25

1. Log (field diary) - daily recording of events/conversations
2. Field Notes - broader, more interpretive
   - ->descriptive notes: objective descriptions of events/conversations (thick)
   - ->reflective notes: document researchers personal experiences, reflections, and progress in the field with different purposes
   - ->theoretical notes: document interpretive efforts to attach meaning to observations
   - ->methodology notes: reminders about how subsequent observations should be made
   - ->personal notes: comments about researchers own feelings