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Y3 and Y4 IP Biology > Chapter 15: Reproduction in Plants and Man > Flashcards

Chapter 15: Reproduction in Plants and Man Flashcards

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1
Q

What is asexual reproduction?

A

Process which results in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent, without fusion of gamates

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2
Q

What type of duplication happens during asexual reproduction?

A

Mitosis

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3
Q

What is the relationship between daugther cells and parent cells?

A

They are identical (same type and amount of genes)

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4
Q

What is sexual reproduction?

A

Process of fusing two gamates to form the zygote, which produces genetically dissimilar offspring

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5
Q

What type of duplication happens during sexual reproduction?

A

Meiosis

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6
Q

What are clusters of flowers called?

A

Inflorescences

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7
Q

What is the sepal?

A

A modified leaf that protects the flower during the bud stage

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8
Q

What is the calyx made up of?

A

Sepals

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9
Q

What is the petal?

A

A modified leaf that forms the most obvious part of a flower

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10
Q

What makes up the corolla?

A

Petals

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11
Q

What is the receptacle?

A

The enlarged / swollen end of the flower stalk that bears part of the flower

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12
Q

What is the pedicel?

A

The flower stalk

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13
Q

What types of flowers do not have a pedicel?

A

Sessile flowers

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14
Q

Which part of the plant is unique to the male specimen?

A

The stamen (a group of stamen is called the androecium)

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15
Q

What does the stamen consist of?

A

An anther and a fillament

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16
Q

What does the filament do?

A

Holds the anther in a suitable position to disperse pollen grains

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17
Q

What does is the anther made of, and what does it do?

A

It is made of two lobes, each containing two pollen sacks (4 total), and the anther’s role is producing pollen grains for the flower. The anther also contains a phleom and xylem

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18
Q

What sets of chromosomes do pollen grains have?

A

A haploid set

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19
Q

What nuclei does the pollen grain have?

A

Generative nucleus and the pollen tube (vegetative) nucleus

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20
Q

Which part of the plant is unique to the female specimen?

A

The carpel (a group of carpel make up the pistil or gynoecium)

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21
Q

What does the carpel consist of?

A

An ovary, style and stigma(s)

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22
Q

What is the purpose of the stigma?

A

Recieve pollen grains

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23
Q

How does the stigma stimulate germination?

A

It secretes sugary fluid

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24
Q

What does the style do?

A

Connects the stigma to the ovary, and holds the stigma in a suitable position to trap pollen grains

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25
Q

What does the ovary contain?

A

It contains one or more ovules, and each ovule contains the ovum and the definitive nucleus

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26
Q

What set of chromosomes does the ovum have?

A

A haploid set

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27
Q

What is the ovule attatched to?

A

It is connected to the placenta by a stalk called the funicle

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28
Q

What is pollination?

A

The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma

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29
Q

Why is pollination important?

A

It helps to bring together the male and female gamates to enable fertilisation to take place

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30
Q

How can pollination be carried out?

A

Via wind or animals

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31
Q

What are the two types of pollination?

A

Self and cross pollination

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32
Q

What is self-pollination?

A

The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower on the same plant

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33
Q

At what rate does the anthers and stigmas in a bisexual flower mature?

A

At the same rate

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34
Q

Where is the stigma located in bisexual flowers?

A

Below the anthers

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35
Q

What are some advantages of self-pollination?

A

Only one parent is required
Less pollen and energy is wasted
More likely to occur
Not dependant on external factors
Beneficial qualities are passed down from parent to offspring

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36
Q

What are some disadvantages of self-pollination?

A

Offspring produced are genetically similar to parents causing fewer varieties of offspring
Higher probability of offspring inheriting harmful recessive alleles

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37
Q

What is cross-pollination?

A

The transfer of pollen grains to the flower of another plant of the same species (different species is called cross-breeding)

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38
Q

What are dioecious plants?

A

Plants with only male or female flowers making self-pollination impossible

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39
Q

How does cross-pollination happen in bisexual plants?

A

Anthers and stigmas mature at different times
Stigmas are situated a distance away from the anthers

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40
Q

What are the advantages of cross-pollination?

A

Offspring inherit beneficial qualities from both parents
Probability of harmful recessive being inherited is lowered
Seeds produce can survive longer before germinating
Increased probability of offspring being hetrozygous
More genetic variation

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41
Q

What are some disadvantages of cross-pollination?

A

Two plants of the same species are required
More energy and pollen is wasted
Less likely to occur compared to self-pollination
Dependent on external factors

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42
Q

What are some characteristics of insect-pollinated flowers?

A

Petals are brightly coloured
Presence of nectar guides
Large petal for insect to land on

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43
Q

How does the pollen grain enter the ovule?

A

1) Pollen grains germinates in response to the sugary fluid secreted by the mature stigma
2) A pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain, which is controlled by the pollen tube nucleus
3) The cytoplasm and the two nuclei pass into the pollen tube
4) The pollen tube secrets enzymes to digest the surrounding tissue of stigma and style
5) Pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle

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44
Q

How does the pollen grain fertillise the ovum after entering the ovule?

A

1) The generative nucleus divides into two male gamates, while the pollen tube nucleus disintegrates
2) When the pollen tube reaches the ovule, its tip absorbs sap and bursts, releasing two male gamates
3) One male gamate fuses with the ovum to form the zygote. The other male gamate fuses with the definitive nucleus to form the endosperm nucleus
4) Zygote divides and develops into an embryo, and the endosperm nucleus will give rise to an endosperm

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45
Q

What changes occur in the ovary, ovule and zygote after fertilisation?

A

Ovary: Develops into a fruit
Ovule: Develops into a seed
Zygote: Develops into an embryo (which will develop into the new plant once germinated)

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46
Q

What are the benefits of seed dispersal?

A

Colonising new areas, reducing overcrowding and competition for limited resources

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47
Q

What are the male external reproductive organs?

A

Scrotum and penis

48
Q

What are the male internal reproductive organs?

A

Testes and accessory glands

49
Q

What does the testes consist of?

A

Highly coiled tubes surrounded by connective tissue

50
Q

Where do sperms form?

A

Seminiferous tubules

51
Q

Where is testosterone produced?

A

Leydig cells which are scattered between the tubules

52
Q

What is testosterone responsible for?

A

The development and maintenance of the secondary sexual characteristics in males

53
Q

What are the testes located?

A

Outside the admonial cavity, in the scrotum

54
Q

Where do the sperms go to after being produced?

A

The coiled tubes of the epididymis

55
Q

What is the purpose of the epididymis

A

Stores inactive sperms from the testis before they enter the sperm duct

56
Q

What happens during ejaculation?

A

Sperms are propelled through the sperm duct and the ejaculatory duct, and then exit the penis through the urethra

57
Q

What is semen composed of?

A

Sperm and secretions produced by the accessory glands

58
Q

What are the three sets of accessory glands?

A

Seminal glands, prostate gland, Cowper’s gland

59
Q

What is the purpose of the seminal valves?

A

Contribute about 60% of the total volume of semen

60
Q

How does the products of the prostate gland reach the urethra?

A

It secretes its products directly into the urethra through several small ducts

61
Q

What does the Cowper’s glands do?

A

Secrete a clear mucus before ejaculation that neutralises acidic urine remaining in the urethra

62
Q

What happens to the penis during sexual arousal?

A

The erectile tissue fills wih blood from the arteries, causing an erection

63
Q

What are the female internal reproductive organs?

A

A pair of ovaries and a system of ducts and chambers that carry gamates and house the embryo and fetus

64
Q

Where are the ovaries located?

A

In the abdominal cavity

65
Q

What does an ovary consist of?

A

Many follicle, which consist of a partially developed egg, called an oocyte, surrounded by support cells

66
Q

What is oogenesis?

A

The process of an oocyte developing into an ovum

67
Q

What hormones does the ovary produce?

A

Oestrogen and progesterone

68
Q

What is ovulation?

A

The expulsion of an egg from the follicle (the egg cells produce estradiol before ovulation)

69
Q

Where does the egg travel to after it is expelled from the ovary?

A

The uterus via an oviduct (fallopian tube)

70
Q

How is the egg transported in the oviduct (fallopian tube)

A

The cilla in the oviduct convey the egg to the uterus (womb)

71
Q

What is the endometrium?

A

The uterus lining

72
Q

How does the uterus open into the vagina?

A

It narrows at the cervix before opening into the vagina

73
Q

What is the vagina?

A

A thin-walled chamber that is the repository for sperm during copulation and serves as the birth canal

74
Q

What is the vulva?

A

The opening of the vagina

75
Q

What is gametogenesis?

A

The production of gamates

76
Q

How many sperms are produced every day?

A

Millions

77
Q

How does spermatogenesis differ from oogenesis?

A

1) All four products of meiosis develop into sperm, while only one becomes an egg
2) Spermatogenesis occurs throughout adolescence and adulthood
3) Sperms are continuously produced without the prolonged interruptions that occur in oogenesis

78
Q

What makes up a sperm?

A

Head: Acrosome and Nucleus
Midpiece: Mitochondria
Tail made of plasma membrane

79
Q

What hormone glands are in charge of human reproduction?

A

Hypothalamus, anterior pituary and gonads

80
Q

What hormone is secreted by the hypothalamus?

A

Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone (GnRH) (directs the release of hormones in the anterior pituary)

81
Q

What hormones are secreted in the anterior pituary?

A

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinising Hormone (LH)

82
Q

What activity does Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) promote?

A

Sertoli cells

83
Q

What does Lutenising Hormone (LH) regulate?

A

Leydig cells - which secrete testosterone - and other androgens, which promote spermatogenesis

84
Q

What does testosterone do?

A

Stimulates the development of secondary spermatocytes into mature spermatozoa and regulates the production of GnRH, FSH and LH via negative feedback

85
Q

What do Sertoli cells secrete?

A

The hormone inhibin, which reduces FSH secretion

86
Q

What happens to the endometrium before ovulation?

A

It thickens with blood vessels in preperation for embryo implantation

87
Q

What happens if an embryo is not implanted into the endometrium?

A

The endometrium is shed in a process called menstruation

88
Q

What are developing female follicles located in?

A

The ovary

89
Q

What does a primary (young) follicle consist of?

A

Potential egg cells surrounded by a layer of smaller cells known as follicle cells

90
Q

What is a Graafian follicle?

A

A developed primary follicle that contains a mature egg surrounded by follicle cells and a fluid-filled space. This egg is ready to be released into the oviduct

91
Q

How does ovulation occur?

A

When the Graafian follicle ruptures releasing the mature egg into the oviduct funnel

92
Q

What happens to the ruptured Graafian follicle after ovulation?

A

It develops into a corpus luteum

93
Q

What does the corpus luteum do?

A

Secrete esradiol and progesterone which helps to maintain pregnancy

94
Q

What happens to the corpus luteum if fertillisation does not occur?

A

It will break down

95
Q

What are the stages of menstruation, and what are their usual day numbers?

A

Day 1 - 5: Menstrual flow stage
Day 6 - 13: Follicle stage
Day 14: Ovulation
Day 15 - 28: Corpus luteum stage

96
Q

What happens during the menstrual flow stage?

A

The uterine lining breaks down and flows out of the body through the vagina. The anterior pituary gland secretes follicle-stimulating hormones (FSH) into the bloodstream

97
Q

What happens during the follicle stage?

A

1) The follicle-stimulating hormones (FSH) secreted during menstruation stimulates follicle development in the ovaries and also oestrogen secretions by the follicles.
2) The oestrogen secreted causes the repair and growth of the uterine lining
3) Oestrogen inhibits FSH production, which prevents more follicles from growing, and stimulates pituary gland to secret lutenising hormone (LH)

98
Q

What happens during ovulation?

A

The lutenising hormone (LH) produced during the follicle stage causes ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone and some oestrogen

99
Q

What happens during the corpus luteum stage?

A

Progesterone prepares the uterine lining for the fertillised egg by causing it to thicken further and supplying it with blood capillaries. It also inhibits the production of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and ovulation

100
Q

What happens during the corpus luteum stage if the egg is not fertillised?

A

1) The egg breaks down
2) High concentration of progesterone inhibits lutenising hormone (LH) production, which causes the breaking down of the corpus luteum
3) Progesterone is no longer secreted
4) Uterine lining breaks down and is discharged together with blood through the vagina (menstruation)

101
Q

What happens during the corpus leteum stage if the egg is fertillised?

A

1) The fertillised egg develops into a zygote, and then an embryo
2) The embryo embeds itself in the uterine lining
3) The embryo secretes a hormone which prevents the breaking down of the corpus luteum
4) The corpus luteum continues to secrete oestrogen and progesterone until the placenta forms and is able to take over the production of hormones

102
Q

What is the fertile period in the menstrual cycle?

A

Days 11 - 16

103
Q

What is the process cleavage in fertillisation?

A

The process where the zygote undergoes division via mitosis

104
Q

What is the blastocyl?

A

A ball of cells with a central cavity, caused by the division of the zygote cells

105
Q

What happens to the blastocyl after it is formed?

A

It embeds itself into the endometrium

106
Q

What does the embryo release to prevent menstruation?

A

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

107
Q

What is pregnancy / gestation?

A

The condition of carrying one or more embryos in the uterus

108
Q

What makes up the placenta during pregnancy?

A

1) Embryonic villi
2) Uterine lining
3) Blood capillaries

109
Q

What attaches the embryo to the placenta?

A

The umbilical cord

110
Q

What is an amniotic sac?

A

The membrane that encloses the embryo in a space called the amniotic cavity, which is filled with amniotic fluid. This is where the embryo develops, and once all of its major organs develop, it is known as a fetus

111
Q

What are the fetal blood capillaries surrounded by?

A

Maternal blood spaces

112
Q

How does substances get exchanged between the fetus and the mother?

A

Via diffusion of dissolved substances across maternal blood spaces

113
Q

Why is the fetal blood capillaries seperated from the maternal blood capillaries?

A

1) The mother’s blood pressure is too high for the fetus
2) The fetus and the mother’s blood type may vary
3) Mixing of blood might cause the antibodies in the mother’s blood to cause the fetus’ blood to agglutinate, which could be fatal

114
Q

What are some functions of the placenta?

A

1) Produces progesterone
2) Allows antibodies to diffuse from mother’s blood to fetus’ blood to protect fetus from diseases
3) Allows excretory products to diffuse out of the fetus’ blood into the mother’s blood
4) Allows oxygen and food substances to diffuse from the mother’s blood into the fetus’ blood

115
Q

What is the umbillical cord made out of?

A

One umbillical vein and two umbillical arteries

116
Q

What are some functions of the ammniotic fluid?

A

1) Allows fetus to move freely
2) Supports and cusions the fetus
3) Protects fetus from physical injury by absorbing shock
4) Lubricates the vagina during birth

Y3 and Y4 IP Biology (20 decks)

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